Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (2024)

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (1865) by Charles Thomas Newton.

Volume 1

PREFACE.INN the second volume of the present work will befound a popular account of my discoveries inAsia Minor, abridged from the larger work, entitled"A History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus,and Branchidæ. " London, 1862.The plans and architectural plates which accompany this abridgment have, in like manner, beenreduced from the plates in Vol. I. of the largerwork.The sculptures from the Mausoleum are illustratedby three engraved plates repeated from Vol. II. ofthe former work, and by eleven photographs fromdrawings now for the first time published. Theplate of the Map of Caria, engraved for my formerwork under the supervision of the late AdmiralWashington, has been used in the present work bythe kind permission of Captain Richards, R.N.,Hydrographer to the Admiralty.The position of Lagina, as noted by Lieut. Smith,R.E., has been added to this Map.C. T. NEWTON.

INTRODUCTIONCONTENTS.LETTER I.Departure from England-Malta-Ruins at Krendi- RomanTombs near Bengemma-Patras-Sarcophagus- Vostitza-Roman Statues-Arrival at AthensPAGE13II.Athens-Acropolis-Archaic Athene-Sculptures in the Theseium-Warrior from Marathon-Sepulchral Stela -Coinsof Alexander the Great-The Amphiaraïon-Inscriptionsthere-Mycena -The Lions at the GatewayIII.Constantinople-First Impressions-The Walls -Depopulation of the City since the Byzantine Empire- AncientMosaics in Mosque of Kachreie-St. Sophia- Museum ofSt. Irene-Fragment from Frieze of Mausoleum -Jawfrom Bronze Serpent-Silver Plate with Figure of DianaCollections of Coins-Smyrna-M. Ivanoff's Coins-Arrivalat Mytilene-The Pasha ......IV.Description of Mytilene-Its ancient Features- The Environs-Character of the Inhabitants-Roman Aqueductat Morea Greek Pyrgos -Therma -PaphilaAncient Remains at Achlea-Cape Zeitin, the ancientMalea153749viii CONTENTS.V.The Archbishop of Mytilene-A Greek Baptism-The MarbleChair of Potamo, son of Lesbonax-Anecdote respectinghim--Inscription relating to Theophanes The GreekSchool-Inscription in Church of St. TheraponVI.PAGE63A Turkish Mejlis-British Consular Protection-System ofa*griculture in Asia Minor-Cultivation of the OliveProcess of Making Oil-Amount Exported from Mytilene 73VII.A Levantine Steamer-Tour with Mr. Hughes-AyassoGreek Hospitality-Ascent of Mount Olympus-Pyrrha—Gulf of Kalloni-Ancient Remains at TemenosVIII.84Eresos-Acropolis-Greek Inscription, containing a letterfrom King Antigonos-Scenery about Eresos-Costume ofthe Women-Ancient Remains near Mesotopo-Makra—Marine Products in Gulf of Kalloni noticed by Aristotle... 93IX.Arrival of Mr. J. E. Blunt My New House-Style of Building in Mytilene-Servants and Food in the Levant-Tourwith two Travellers-Mandamatha-Custom of offeringembroidered work in the Greek Churches, derived fromantiquity-Inscription near Palaio Liman-Ancient Remains at Anoiktò-Position of Ægiros-Molivo, the ancientMethymna Petra -Agia Paraskeue - Early ChristianChapel cut in the rock-X.Arrival of Ali Nehad Effendi-Tijaret Mejlis-Castle ofMytilene The Gatelusio Family-Their Coins-Mosquesin the Castle-Robbers in Smyrna-Installation of theArchbishop of Mytilene as Member of the Synod at Constantinople102113CONTENTS. ixXI.Visit to Salonica and the Troad-The Incantadas-The Archof Constantine Relief of Pan and the Nymphs atGallipoli-Inscriptions on Spoons found at LampsacusInscription-Dardanelles-Mr. Calvert's House-Tour inthe Troad -Hill near Bounarbashi -Chimenlai -LatinInscriptions relating to the Emperors Claudius and NeroSeven Granite Columnsnear Koushibashi-Hellenic Fortressat Chigri-Hot Springs at Lisgyar-Temple of Apollo Sminthius- -Alexandria Troas -Kalifatli-Roman MosaicsIlium Novum-Mr. Calvert's Excavations on supposed siteof Ophrynium; in Khani Tepe; in Necropolis near theKemar-Discovery of Greek Vases-Singular Ordeal forthe Discovery of a Thief ......PAGE121XII.First Impressions of Rhodes-A Cassiote FeudXIII.137--Ancient Rhodes-Its Harbours and Arsenals-Description ofthe Present Town-The Fortifications-Castello-AmboiseGate The Head of the Dragon-Church of St. JohnGrand Master's Palace-Street of the Knights-HospitalMosques - Convents Domestic Architecture - JewishQuarter Eastern Mole -Tower of De Naillac - Moleand Castle of St. Nicholas-Posts of the different LanguesTombstone of Thomas Newport -Armoury- AncientAcropolis -Stadium -Inscriptions -Sites of TemplesRemains of Mole on Western Shore- Probable Extensionof the Ancient Harbours in this direction-Position of theColossus-Tomb near Symbulli-Probable Extent of theAncient City on this side ......... 146XIV.Visit to Monastery of Zambika-The Archimandrite Nikandros-Costume of the Rhodian Peasant Women- Castle atArchangelo-Koskino-A Peasant's House-Lindos Ware 182X CONTENTS.XV.My Muleteer Panga- Journey to Lindos-The Castle- TheAncient Acropolis-Inscriptions -Apolakkia-Inscriptioncontaining Decree of the People of Netteia- MonolithosFrescoes in Chapel -Hellenic Tower- Siana - HellenicTombs and Remains-Acropolis of Agios Phokas-AncientPolygonal Masonry-Hellenic Remains at Basilika; atAgros; at Castellos - Embonas-Meaning of this NameVilla Nova-Character of the Rhodian Peasantry-ThePriests Popular Superstitions and Customs......XVI.PAGE... 191A Cruise with Mr. Finlay to Scio-The Castle-Inscriptionon a Gun-Ismael Pasha-English Consul at Scio in timeof Henry VIII. -Greek Boatmen-Patmos-My unsatisfactory Interview with the Primates-The Library-TheMonks The Monastery-Calymnos-Ancient Inscriptionsthere-Cos-Antiquities-Coin of Termera-Fountain ofBurinna 214XVII.Tour in Rhodes--Aláerma-Apollona- Fundokli-Demelià-Salakko- Agios Elias -Kappi- Kalavarda - GreekVases - Fanes - Hellenic Tombs near these Villages—Temple of Apollo Erethimios at Theologos- SepulchralRelief at Villa Nova-Kremastò—XVIII.Visit to Cos in the Sampson-A Turkish Trial-Pyli-Tombof Charmylos Antimachia - Inscriptions --- Kephalas—Greek Acropolis-Ancient Remains-Inscription containing Letter from Emperor Tiberius .....XIX.Arrival of Lord Carlisle in the Firebrand-Lord C.'s IllnessDr. McCraith-Diseases Prevalent in Rhodes- Second Visitto Calymnos ...232240248 .1CONTENTS . xiXX.Preparations for War with Russia-A Country SermonAnecdote of a former Pasha of Rhodes .XXI.Trianda-Phileremo, the Acropolis of Ialysos-Gothic Buildings-Frescoes-Remains of Hellenic Fortifications-Probable Site of the Town of Ialysos-Arrival of M. BergSuperstition of the Rhodians respecting Portraits-Departure for England.......1AGE253257XXII.Return to Turkey via Athens- Second Visit to the Amphiaraïon-The Ecole Française at Athens-A Cruise in theLeander Syra-Hostility of the Greeks to the LatinPopulation-Pirates-Return to Mytilene-Comparison ofthe Condition of Society there and at Rhodes-MyTurkishSchoolmaster ... 261XXIII.A Cruise to Tenedos with Ismael Pasha- His CharacterTenedos The Wine Trade-Imports and Exports of theIsland ......XXIV.The Courban Bairam-A Greek FuneralXXV.267274Departure for Calymnos -Smyrna -Discovery of RomanRemains near Caravan Bridge-The British Hospital ...... 280XXVI.Rhodes Calymnos-Necropolis-Excavations in Tombs ...... 283XXVII.Calymniote Divers-The Sponge Trade-Character of thePopulation of Calymnos 291xii CONTENTS.XXVIII.Excavations on an Acropolis; on the Site of the Temple ofApollo-Inscription relating to a Trial-Buildings nearthe Temple Summary of Inscriptions found in CalymnosArgos-Linari-Telendos-Vathy..PAGE299XXIX.Manoli the Cassiote-Discovery of Bronze Relief-Departurefrom Calymnos Budrum-Discovery of Lions from Mausoleum in the Walls of the Castle 320APPENDIX.Tour in Lycia by Mr D. E. Colnaghi 337Tour in Mytilene by the same 347NOTES 3511LIST OF PLATES.FRONTISPIECE. -Map of RhodesPlate.1. Fragment of Frieze of Mausoleum in the Museum atConstantinople, from a Drawing by Mrs. C. T. NEWTON2. Map of Mytilene .......Toface Page44493. Roman Aqueduct, Mytilene. Etched by W. SEVERN,from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI 584. Plan of Town of Rhodes..... 1495. View of Rhodes overlooking the harbour. Etched byW. SEVERN, from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI ... 1496. Rhodes. -D'Amboise Gate. Etched by W. SEVERN, froma Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI 1517. Rhodes. -Fosse D'Amboise Gate.ALAIS, from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI ......8. Rhodes. -Arch near Church of St. John. Aquatint byW. J. ALAIS, from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI ... 152Aquatint by W. J.1519. Rhodes. -Auberge de France. Aquatint by W. J.ALAIS, from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI 15510. Rhodes.-Street of Knights. Etched by W. Severn,from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI 15811. Rhodes. -Tower of De Naillac. Etched by A. SEVERN,from a Photograph by D. E. COLNAGHI ..... ....... ... 17612. The Archimandrite Nikandros. Etched by A. SEVERN,from a Drawing by Mrs. C. T. NEWTON..... 182xiv LIST OF PLATES .Plate.Toface Page

• 13. Rhodes. Interior of Peasant's house. Aquatint by W.

J. ALAIS, from a Drawing by A. BERG 18914. Rhodes. -Lindos. Aquatint by W. J. ALAIS, from aDrawing by A. BERG 19315. Boreas and Oreithyia. Photographed by F. BEDFORD,from a Drawing by Mrs. C. T. NEWTON... 33016. Myra.- Rock Tomb. Etched by W. SEVERN, from aPhotograph by D. E. COLNAGHI 343LIST OF WOODCUTS.PAGE1. Façade of Rock- cut Chapel, Agia Paraskeue 1122. Ground Plan of same3. Monogram in Castle of Mytilene4, 5. Silver Coins attributed to Hekatomnos .....6. Silver Coin of Termera... 1121152262287. Angle of Pediment, Temple of Apollo, Calymna …….. ... 3088. Ground Plan of Building, ibid.9. View of Lion in Wall of Castle, Budrum309335Ꭼ Ꭱ Ꭱ Ꭺ Ꭲ Ꭺ .Page 25, line 17, for "Eileithya " read " Eileithyia. "29 29, 99 31 , for " Amphiaraia ” read "Amphiaraïa.99 ""73,"" 91,"" 99, """" 123, 29+9 99 ""127,"" "1, for "Therapia " read " Therapon. "24, for “ προαστειον ” read “ προάστειον.”13, for " Ereso " read " Eresos. "27, for " Os" read ""Oç. "66 28, for “µuo[ε ]i " read "μion.”7, for " Bournarbashi " read " Bounarbashi. "99 221 , "" 16, for " in his favour " read "in favour.""" 244, "" 26, for "of" read " on."99 248,"" 257,""9913, for " Phatanista " read " Platanista."25, for "Rhoda Vecchia " read " Rodi Vecchio. "TRAVELSANDDISCOVERIES IN THE LEVANT.ΝINTRODUCTION.IN February, 1852, having been recently appointedby Lord Granville to the Vice- Consulship ofMytilene, I visited the Levant for the first time. Inreceiving this appointment from the Foreign Office,I was, at the same time, instructed to use suchopportunities as presented themselves for the acquisition of antiquities for the British Museum, andwith this object I was authorized to extend myresearches beyond the limits of my Vice- Consulship;a small annual allowance being granted me fortravelling expenses.In the volume now offered to the public I haverecorded the researches and observations during aresidence in the Levant of seven years, from 1852 to1859.The series of letters in which the work is arranged,were for the most part written in the Levant, atthe date which they bear. Much new matter has,however, been inserted in various parts of the text,and these additions have been thrown, for the sakeof uniformity, into the form of letters . Perhaps aB2 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmore united and harmonious composition could havebeen produced by recasting the whole of the originalletters into one continuous narrative, than by such anamalgamation as I have attempted; but the recordof a traveller's , first impressions, in their originalfreshness, will, in most cases, interest the publicmore than any subsequent composition which maybe distilled, in the laboratory of his memory, outof confused and faded images.In the series of Letters I have inserted severalfrom my friend Mr. Dominic Ellis Colnaghi, nowH.M. Consul at Bastia, who left England with mein 1852 , and of whose companionship and assistanceI had the advantage during the greater part of mysojourn in the Levant.IN THE LEVANT. 3LETTER I.ATHENS, March 20, 1852.WE left Southampton on the 17th February,1852, in the Peninsular and Oriental Company'ssteamer " Montrose, " from which we were transferred at Gibraltar to the " Ripon, " then on herway to Alexandria with the Indian and Australianmails. As I passed through the Straits for the firsttime and saw the blue expanse of the Mediterraneanstretching far away before me, I felt that the trueinterest of my voyage had there and then commenced. I had made my first step on that ancienthighway of navigation of which the Pillars ofHercules were so long the extreme western boundary. My destination was that Ionian coast whence,in the 7th century before the Christian era, issuedforth those enterprising mariners who first amongthe Greeks traversed the length of the Mediterranean and boldly competed with Phoenician tradersin the ports of Spain. As, sailing on the track ofthese early adventurers, I thought over theirOdyssean voyages, the recollection seemed to inspireme with fresh hope and energy. I compared myselfto one of the old Phocæan mariners seeking fora Tartessus in unknown Western waters, and longcherished visions of discoveries in the Levantseemed to ripen into a positive presentiment ofB 24 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESsuccess as I advanced on my way towards thatland of promise.We arrived at Malta after a very prosperousvoyage, and were most kindly welcomed by myoldfriends Captains Graves and Spratt, who took awarm interest in my projects, and gave me muchvaluable information respecting that Levantine worldin which I was about to establish myself, and towhich I was as yet an utter stranger.As we had to wait several days at Malta for asteamer to Patras, I took the opportunity of visitingthe curious ruins at Krendi, which are generallyconsidered to be of Phoenician origin. These ruins.are situated on the south coast of Malta, oppositeto a small island called Filfile . They consist of twogroups of enclosures formed by masses of stonesranged upright like a paling, over which others areplaced horizontally. Some of these stones are from15 to 20 feet high. The whole have been quarriedout of the tertiary calcareous rock on which theenclosures are built. The principal group consistsof three large elliptical enclosures, set obliquely towhich are three smaller enclosures, also elliptical;this is situated on higher ground than the othergroup, which is nearer the sea.Within the outer enclosures are inner walls , inwhich there is an approximation to regular masonry.The lower part of these inner walls is composed ofuprights about six feet in height, above which largeblocks are built into regular horizontal courses.the principal temple are two doorways, throughwhich the central enclosure is approached from theInIN THE LEVANT. 5east. These have jambs, ornamented with smallholes, evidently drilled with a screw, the marks ofthe worm being visible in each hole. The anglesof the jambs are cut away so as to form a kindof pilaster, a slight projection in the upper part ofwhich serves to indicate a capital. The jambs ofthe doorways, the lintels, and the threshold- stones,are pierced with holes, showing the position of thehinges and bolts of the doors. The irregular ellipsesformed by these walls terminate at either end in akind of apse; in several of these apses the innerwall remains to a considerable height, and bendsinwards as it rises, as if it had converged to a conical roof, formed by approaching horizontal coursesof masonry. Within the apses are no remains atpresent of fallen vaulting, as might have beenexpected if these recesses had been covered over;but the disappearance of all such evidence in situmay be accounted for by the fact that these ruinshave been cleared out within a recent period.The inner walls of these ellipses are pierced witha number of square apertures cut out of the largeblocks, some of which seem intended to admit lightor sound, like the openings in Gothic churches towhich ecclesiologists have given the name hagioscope.Others communicate with small chambers like cupboards, cut in the rock.Within the enclosures are several altars, formedby large slabs of stone set upon short pillars. Onevery tall piece of rock towers above these enclosures.Steps cut in the rock lead up to the top, in which isa hollow, as if for a man to stand in. Perhaps this6 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESisolated rock served as a watch-tower or place forsignals .The lower group is of smaller extent than theupper one, but has its inner walls, doorways, andapertures better preserved. In both groups thespace enclosed within the walls is floored over witha rude concrete, composed of gravel and smallpieces of stone.In the upper group I found a block of stone inform like a square Roman altar, on each face ofwhich, within an oblong panel, is a rude reliefrepresenting a tree in a basket. Close by thisstone is another, on which is carved a rude spiral orvolute. In the upper group were also found sevensmall female figures, cut out of Maltese stone, askull, a number of human bones, and some stones,shaped like women's breasts. The figures, whichare now preserved in the Museum at Malta, rangefrom 1 ft. 8 in. to 1 ft. 2 in. in height. Four areentirely nude, the others draped. Two are seated.The heads are broken away. The proportions andexecution of these figures are alike barbarous. Theenormous hips and breasts, and bulging outlines ,suggest the notion that they are of African origin.At any rate the type represented is unlike that ofany of the races of the ancient world, so far as weknow them through art.In both groups of enclosures great quantities ofbroken pottery have been found. Having obtainedauthority from the Governor, Sir William Reid, toremove this pottery to the Museum at Malta, whereit might be properly cleaned and examined, I transported two cartloads of it , and removed at the sameIN THE LEVANT. 7time the curious altar with a tree on it, which thesacrilegious hand of the British sightseer had already begun to chip and deface.The pottery I found to be of several kinds; blackware of a heavy, brittle kind, made of black earth,and ornamented with rude rows of notches orindented triangular marks; finer black ware, lessbrittle and more polished; coarse red ware, andcoarse and fine drab ware. Some of the finer blackand drab ware had incised patterns of the rudestkind. All the varieties seem to have been bakedin the fire, and have a polished surface. I sentsome specimens to the British Museum. Potterysomewhat similar in character has been found in theisland of Jersey.Dr. Henry Barth, the well-known African explorer,has given a detailed description and a plan of theseremains in Gerhard's " Archäologische Zeitung " for1848. He supposes that both groups of enclosureswere hypethral temples, enclosed within a commonperibolus wall, of which he found some traces.According to his plan, the entry into the uppertemple is from the east; a doorway opposite to thisentry leads into the middle chamber. In the easternchamber he found an aperture in the wall, communicating with a small outer chamber; through this holehe supposes that oracles were delivered by the priests.In the museum at Malta is a conical stone, three feethigh, resembling in form the well- known symbol ofAphrodite, placed in her temples at Paphos andelsewhere. This stone, Dr. Barth states to havebeen found in the most eastern chamber of thetemple.3upper8 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe enclosures at Krendi are very similar to theremains at Gozo, known by the name, Torre deiGiganti; but these latter present certain differencesin plan, which have been carefully noted by Dr. Barth.Two heads from female figures discovered within theenclosures at Gozo, have been published by DellaMarmora, and seem to be no less barbarous thanthose at Krendi. On the whole, it may, I think, beinferred that the remains in both islands are thework of some race much lower in the scale of civilization than the Phoenicians as we know them inancient history. I am disposed to regard thesetemples as the work of some indigenous people, whohaving been brought into contact with Phoeniciansettlers at some time or other, imbibed from thissource some scanty tradition of the arts of civilization; whether, however, these remains shouldbe assigned to a remote or to a late period ofpagan antiquity, can only be determined by furtherevidence.The day before I left Malta, Mr. Lushington, thechief Secretary of the Government, invited me tobe present at the opening of some tombs, at a placecalled Santi, near Bengemma. These are all cut inthe solid rock, on the slope of a hill facing thenorth, and commanding a beautiful view of the sea.Our party was accompanied by a Maltese gentleman,Dr. Onofrio, who found a tomb when required, withas much sagacity as a pointer finds a partridge.Each tomb is entered by an oblong aperture cutin the rock, about six feet deep and twice as broadas an English grave, in the side of which is a flightIN THE LEVANT. 9another to the N.W.of steps. At the bottom of these is a square opening large enough to admit easily a man's body, whichleads to a small chamber with a curved ceiling.Each chamber contained one or more skeletons laidon a ledge, and several vases.In one of the gravesthe heads lay to the N.E., inThe pottery was coarse and unvarnished, of a drabcolour, and is probably of the late Roman period.Roman coins are found in these tombs, and as Iwas informed, Greek coins and vases; but I couldnot verify this assertion, for everything at Malta isdispersed as soon as found, from the want of a wellorganized museum .It is to be regretted that these tombs are notexplored in a more systematic manner than atpresent, when gay parties meet to hold their picnics over the open grave; the pale ale and champagne corks contrasting strangely with the brokenvases, relics probably of a funeral feast held onthis spot fifteen hundred years ago.66We left Malta in the English mail steamerMedina, " and arrived at Patras after a verystormy passage. Here I first saw a Greek town.The strange half- savage look of the inhabitants,with their shaggy capotes and white kilts, seemedquite in harmony with the wild desolate characterof the landscape, shut in by high mountains, whichat the time of our visit were covered with snow.We were most kindly received by the British ViceConsul, Mr. William Wood, who has been engagedin the currant trade at Patras for some years.He took us to see a fine marble sarcophagus in10 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe garden of a M. Kritikos . On the front is arelief of eight naked boys, with the type of Cupid,but wingless . At one end of the sarcophagus areBellerophon, Pegasus, and the Chimæra; at theopposite end a female sphinx seated. These sculptures are executed in a better style than is generallyfound on sarcophagi.The bottom inside is perforated with round holes,five inches above which is a thin slab. The body,probably, was placed on this, the perforationsbelow being intended to drain off all that was dissolved in the process of natural decay.Having to wait for an Austrian steamer to takeus to Corinth, we rode to see a castle at Rhion, theGibraltar which commands the narrowest point inthe gulf.In this fortress were a number of prisoners, themost determined cut-throats and bandits in allGreece. They were kept in cells, through the barsof which we could see them. Their eyes had aferocious glare, like those of wild beasts in a cage.Two sentinels were pacing up and down with theirmuskets loaded, ready to fire in case there was anyattempt to escape, and a cannon was placed so as tocommand the whole line of windows. One of thesebrigands managed to escape two or three years ago,and afterwards committed fourteen murders, andwhen he was again tried and condemned, threatenedthe judge and jury with death. When he was taken toexecution, he managed to conceal a small knife, withwhich he cut his cords, and then defied the executioner. It happened, however, that among theIN THE LEVANT. 11guard present were two soldiers whose brother hehad killed, and they rushed in and stabbed him withtheir swords till he was disabled, when the executioner finished the work of the law with a longknife. I was assured that such scenes are by nomeans uncommon at executions at Patras.As the Austrian steamer did not come in, weproceeded to Vostitza in a small English steamer,which having to tack against a head-wind, tooktwelve hours for this little voyage. On landingat Vostitza we were very kindly received by aGreek agent of Mr. Wood, to whom I had a letterof introduction. At this port a large portion ofthe currants are shipped for exportation, andwe saw on our arrival the materials of many afuture plum-pudding rolling down to the beach incasks. The currant merchants here complain atpresent that the supply of currants is too abundantfor the demand. It appears that the growers of.currants have adopted the plan of cutting rings inthe bark of the tree, just below the bunches, bywhich process a greater quantity, but an inferiorquality of fruit, is produced.The scenery here was very grand; snow- cappedmountains hemmed us in on every side; both hereand at Patras the ground near the shore has beenrent and convulsed by earthquakes into strangefantastic forms. The market-- place presented astrange appearance to our civilized eyes, and wegazed with wonder on the wild-looking shepherds'dogs; the men in their shaggy dresses, seated ona pile of baggage on the top of small mountain12 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESponies; the women standing bare-legged under agigantic plane tree, trampling on and bleaching thelinen in the fresh springs which burst forth fromthe shore close to the sea. This primitive mode ofwashing seems unchanged from the time of Nausicaa.The plane-tree measures more than 40 feet in girth.Vostitza is the site of the ancient Egium, which,when Pausanias visited Greece, contained a numberof temples and statues, nearly all trace of whichhas disappeared. It is probable, as Leake supposes, that much of the architecture was of brick,as the fields near the town are strewn with fragments of brick and painted tile. In the houseof one of Mr. Wood's agents, called AristidesGeorgios, I saw two fine statues of white marble,and some fragments of a third, found in the gardenattached to the house. One of these statues appeared to be a Mercury, very similar to the celebratedone in the Vatican; the other a female figure, witha head-dress like that of the younger Faustina, probably an empress in the character of some goddess.These statues are well preserved and are goodspecimens of art of the Roman period. Of thethird figure there remain only the head and theright hand, which has held a small vase.Some years ago a tessellated pavement was foundin the town, but is now nearly destroyed. A littleto the east of Vostitza, in a field overlooking thesea, I noticed part of a fluted column and someremains of buildings which had just been dug up;near them was a piece of massive wall. The columnwas of travertine covered with stucco.IN THE LEVANT. 13After waiting at Vostitza till the Austrian steamerwas due, finding that it did not arrive, we took aGreek guide and horses, and rode along the coast toCorinth this occupied two days. The scenery wasextremely wild and beautiful. Along the coastthere is a high mountain-range, sometimes overhanging the sea, sometimes leaving a narrow stripof alluvial shore, covered with arbutus and othershrubs. The road is not what would be called aroad in England; it is either a sheep-track or a goattrack, according to the nature of the country ittraverses; sometimes winding along the precipitousedge of the high cliffs , sometimes disappearing inthe brushwood and shingle below. Bridges thereare none, and rivers can only be crossed when ina fordable state: fortunately they are not verydeep. Along these wild tracks the little Greekhorses clatter in a long file, always following onebehind another; they are very sure-footed, rathermulish in temper, but sometimes indulge in a wonderful gallop, ventre à terre. Being shod with shoeswhich cover nearly the entire foot, they bear beingrattled along rough ground better than Englishhorses.made our firstThis primitiveAfter the first day's journey weacquaintance with a Greek khan.hostel may be described as a large bare apartmentoccupying the whole interior of the house, whichhas no second story. The roof is supported byan arch of masonry, thrown across the housefrom wall to wall. In one corner is the fire; thesmoke finds its way through a hole in the roof,14 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESor into the eyes of the inhabitants, according tothe direction of the wind or the character of thefuel. At this fire all the cooking takes place; theinmates of the khan and the guests all sit roundand warm themselves till their beds are ready, wheneverybody turns in. The brass lamp lit with oil isextinguished, and the weary traveller looking upwards from his pillow through the tiles, sees a startwinkle here and there, or feels the dripping of theshower, according to the weather. The bed is akind of wooden settle or dresser, with a quiltinggenerally well peopled with aborigines.After the dirt and discomfort of such a night'slodging, for which our host demanded an exorbitant sum, we rejoiced to find ourselves in our saddlesin the fresh morning air. To me, who had been solong pent up in the close and murky atmosphere ofLondon, the silence and solitude of the route, occasionally interrupted by meeting a string of mules,or a party of shepherds driving their herds withfierce wolf-like dogs; the space of the sky around,and the combination of the wildest mountainscenery with the richest and most delicate colouring, had an ineffable charm. To my unagricultural eye, it was a relief to look at a country stillvery much as nature made it, and which tillage hadnot yet cut up into those plats and patches which sodisturb the breadth and repose of the landscape.On approaching the isthmus, we saw in the distancethe steep rock of the Acro- Corinthus, which towersabove the plain in majestic isolation , and from thesummit of which a large part of Greece is seenIN THE LEVANT. 15stretched out like a model map. As we drew nearCorinth, we found ourselves again within the precincts of civilization: first came the phenomenon ofruts and roads; then here and there a wheeledvehicle, such as we had not seen during two days'journey; then cultivated fields and gardens; at last,when we got into the miserable village, we found aregular inn, full of English tourists, whose presencerather disturbed the impression of the scene.took a sailing- boat at Kalamaki, and got to Athensafter a night's becalming in an open boat, crowdedwith ladies. Fortunately the weather was very fine.As we entered Athens in the early morning, I sawthe colonnade of the Parthenon lit up into suddensplendour with the rays of the god Helios.WeII.ATHENS, March 15, 1852.THE principal monuments of Athens have been sofrequently delineated and described, that a traveller,on first arriving, recognizes on every side longfamiliar forms, and his first impressions lose perhapssomething of their vividness in proportion to thisprevious familiarity. But nothing that I had everread or seen at all prepared me for the beauty ofthe Athenian landscape; nor can any one, withoutvisiting Athens, understand how exquisitely theancient edifices are designed in relation to thislandscape, and how much the subtle charm oftheir proportions is enhanced by this combination.16 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe key-note of this harmony is the rock of theAcropolis.When this great natural landmark became theimpregnable citadel and hallowed sanctuary of theAthenian people, their genius converted it at thesame time into the noblest base which has ever beenemployed in architecture. When our eye glancesfrom the precipitous weather- stained sides of thisrocky base to the marble columns standing in reliefa*gainst the sky above, there is a sudden transitionfrom the picturesque confusion of nature to thesymmetry of art, from irregular to geometricalforms, from rugged surfaces to surfaces wrought toa polish like that of ivory, and jointed with theprecision of the finest inlaid-work.The suddenness of this transition does not shock,but, on the contrary, delights the eye; there isharmony in the apparent discord. But if we takeaway one of the two elements out of which thisharmony is composed, the charm is dissolved.If, for instance, such an edifice as the Parthenonwere planted on a dead level, and mewed up in thehot bricky streets of a crowded city, much of theoriginal effect of the design would be destroyed.So again, if the Acropolis were dismantled of allwith which art has invested it, and despoiled of itscrown of temples, it would remain a naked barrenrock, unredeemed by human sympathies, just as itmust have appeared to the first settlers who pitchedtheir tents in the plain of Attica .The attempt in modern Europe to transplantarchitecture from its natural soil, and to imitate itIN THE LEVANT. 17mechanically by line and rule, must necessarily fail,inasmuch as we cannot transplant with the architecture the climate and scenery which first inspiredthe genius of Greek architects, nor the peculiarhabits of thought which blended the fortress and thesanctuary into one, and made the same spot thecentre and rallying-point of religious and patrioticfeelings .One of the objects which interested me most onthe Acropolis was an archaic figure of PallasAthene, in Parian marble, placed near the lodgeof the custode. The goddess is seated in a rudechair; her costume is a tunic reaching to thefeet, over which a large ægis falls like a tippet tothe waist. In the centre of this ægis is a smoothboss, on which, doubtless, has been painted a Gorgon'shead; all round the edge of the ægis are holes, inwhich metallic ornaments, probably serpents, havebeen inserted; the studs by which the sleeves havebeen looped up on the arms have also been of metal,the holes for the insertion being left. The head andboth arms from the elbows are wanting. The posture is formal and angular; the knees are closetogether, but the left foot a little advanced: thedrapery is wrought in parallel channels. This statueis about 4 ft. 6 in. high. It is said to have beenfound at the grotto called Aglaurium, situated at thefoot of the Acropolis, immediately below the templeof Athene Polias. It has been thought, therefore,that in this figure we have a reproduction of theoriginal wooden idol , góavov, of Athene Polias, whichwas worshipped in her temple on the Acropolis, andC18 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwhich the sacrilegious hand of Xerxes destroyed,with the other tutelary deities of Athens.5The smaller fragments of sculpture and architecture found in the course of the excavations on theAcropolis have been carefully collected by M. Pittakys, and temporarily built up with mortar intolow walls, of which they form the facing. Thisprimitive way of arrangement has the great advantage of preventing the abstraction of portableobjects, which is unfortunately an inveterate habitamong travellers.In the cisterns on the Acropolis are a number offragments of the statues of the Parthenon, for aknowledge of the existence of which I was indebtedto Comte De Laborde's beautiful work on the Parthenon."Among these remains are portions ofthe horses fromthe chariot of Athene in the western pediment, whichwas still intact when Morosini took Athens in 1687.After the siege he attempted to lower this matchlessgroup, but unfortunately the tackle he employedgave way, and the sculptures were broken to pieces.There are also a number of arms and legs fromthe pedimental figures, and many fragments of thefrieze.Is is much to be regretted that the Greek Government does not provide a suitable place of shelter forthe many precious sculptures which are lying aboutthe Acropolis, exposed, not only to the weather, butto what is worse, the brutal violence of travellers ,who would mutilate a fine work of art, merely forthe sake of possessing an unmeaning relic. I sawIN THE LEVANT. 19with much concern the injury which had been inflicted on one of the finest slabs of the frieze, —onerepresenting seated figures of deities , which has beendiscovered since Lord Elgin's visit, and of which acast exists in the British Museum. The hand of oneof the seated figures in this relief overhung thechair in a most easy and natural position; it wasthe more precious, because we have very few examples of hands from the finest period of Greek art.One day a foreign visitor, watching an opportunitywhen the custode's back was turned, broke off thishand. I regret that I cannot record the name ofthis miscreant; but I heard that he was a midshipman in the Austrian service, and that his Government punished this exploit with a heavy fine.The inside of the Temple of Theseus has beenconverted into a temporary Museum, in which havebeen deposited a number of most interesting sculptures from various sites , so huddled together thatnone of them can be properly seen.Here may be seen the celebrated figure in relief,of a warrior, found near Brauron, with the name ofthe sculptor, Aristokles, inscribed on the base.This name occurs on another base of a statue foundat Athens, and it is supposed that the sculptor towhom it refers is one mentioned by Pausanias, asthe father of Klecetas. It has been thought, fromthe evidence of these two inscriptions, that his datemight be between Olymp. 75 and 85 , B.C. 480-440 .The name of the artist of this relief being known,and the date thus approximately fixed, the relief isconsequently of the highest interest, as a specimenC 220 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESof archaic art, which may be assigned with probability to the Athenian school."In this figure, as in the pictures on archaic vases,the artist has attempted too literal a rendering ofnature, and has thus crowded his work with details,rather to the detriment of the general effect. Thisover-minuteness is characteristic of Assyrian, ascontrasted with Egyptian art. The details of thearmour are very carefully given. The cuirass hasbeen painted. On the shoulder- strap is a star; onthe breast a lion's face, on a red ground; below thisis a mæander band across the body, which is traversed obliquely by a crimson band, apparently alace or string, knotted on the breast, and terminatingat the side in an ornament like a thunderbolt. Belowthese ornaments and about the waist of the figureis another band, ornamented with zigzags . Theground on which the figure is relieved is red. Theleft hand holds a spear. On the head appears to bea skull-cap, only covering the crown: the hair fallsin parallel rows of ringlets. The beard is channelledin zigzags.It is interesting to compare this figure withanother work of the archaic period in the Theseium,executed in a different school, and probably atan earlier epoch. This is a naked male figurebroken off at the knees. The face has the rigidsmile and peculiar type of countenance which characterize the head of Pallas on the early coins ofAthens; the corners of the eyes being turned uptowards the ears. The hair, arranged in regularcurls on the forehead, falls down the back in longIN THE LEVANT. 21tresses; the arms hang down at the sides in theEgyptian manner. The shoulders are broad, thewaist pinched in, as if by stays; the line of theupper arm more varied and flowing than is at firstsight reconcilable with the general archaic characterof the face.Thus the whole statue seems to exhibit a strugglebetween two schools-the Canonical, which workedaccording to prescribed types, and the Natural,which trusted more to individual observation than•to rules. This statue probably represents anApollo. It much resembles in style one transportedfrom Athens to Vienna by M. Prokesch von Osten.8In the Theseium I also saw a colossal female headof which a cast may be seen in the 1st ElginRoom of the British Museum (No. 106* ) . This isin a very grand style, and one of the few extantcolossal heads which can be referred with probabilityto the school of Phidias. It has been fitted on inthe clumsiest manner to a torso which does not belong to it, and which mars its beauty by ill-matchedproportions. It is uncertain where this head wasfound. I have heard it stated that it was broughtfrom Ægina, when the Museum there was broken up.In the Theseium is a very numerous and interesting collection of sepulchral stele and reliefs, whichhave been carefully described by Professor Gerhard,in a valuable report on the remains of art at Athens."These sepulchral monuments consist of threeclasses: stela, marble vases, and reliefs on slabs.Many specimens of the first kind may be seen in theElgin collection in the British Museum. The usual22 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESform of a stelé is a narrow flat slab of marble, with aheight varying from one to twelve feet, and in shapesomewhat resembling a modern Turkish tombstone,of which it probably suggested the form. The topgenerally terminates either in a floral ornament sculptured in relief, often very rich and flowing in its lines,or in a small pediment. Below this the name of thedeceased person is inscribed, with or without a composition in relief. These designs are usually in verylow relief set in a sunk square. In the stela whichonly bear an inscription, it is probable that a similardesign was painted on the plain surface. The composition in these reliefs is usually very simple; notmore than two or three figures are introduced, andall in the same plane. In this simplicity of treatment, these compositions remind us at once of thevase-pictures of the best period . In both cases, thelimitation of space restricted the artist to few figuresand to a single plane.The scenes in these sepulchral reliefs seem to befor the most part domestic; and the mystic andsymbolical import which some archæologists havediscovered in them seems for the most part farfetched. It is probable that the figures representthe family of the person whom the stelé commemorates; but no attempt seems to have been made toreproduce their individual likeness, as in the Romansarcophagi. The most frequent scenes represent aseated female figure, surrounded by others, who areusually standing up, and who are evidently thesurviving members of her family. In many of thesecompositions, one of these bystanders presents to theIN THE LEVANT. 23deceased a small casket containing funeral offerings .The ages and rank of the different members of thefamily are discriminated by inequality of height. Insome cases the seated female figure is surrounded byothers, who attend on her toilette. In the majorityof these scenes, the dramatis persona are female.The male figures are frequently youthful athletes,distinguished by the strigil, the small vase (lekythos)containing oil, and other attributes of the palestra.Old men are rarely represented. The evidenceafforded by these designs leads to the conclusionthat, while all the subjects have a funereal import,some represent the worship paid by the living tothe dead, while in others the scene commemoratessome incident in the life of the deceased, such asthe memory would love to dwell on.Hence in some of these designs the figures andsymbols recall to us the associations of active life orof festive and joyous occasions, the idea of deathbeing kept out of sight. In the same manner wefind on the sarcophagi of the Roman period scenesrepresenting the marriage of the deceased pair, orthe military exploits of the husband.Sometimes the sepulchral monument, instead ofbeing fashioned as a stelé, takes the form of alekythos, which vases were, as is well known, constantly deposited in and about the tombs at Athens.On the marble lekythi, the subject is usually a groupor figure in very low relief, treated in the samesimple manner as has been already noticed in thesculptures of the stelé.Sometimes the vase itself, instead of being sculp-24 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStured in the round, is itself represented in relief onthe surface of a stelé. The handles of the vases aresometimes rich in ornament, as if the design hadbeen copied from a work in bronze.Among these vases I noticed one, remarkable forits great size, the beauty of the design, and the factthat it had been painted.The scene represented on it is in very low relief.On one side is a youthful figure on horseback, verysimilar in type and attitude to many on the frieze ofthe Parthenon.Behind him are two females, one seated, the otherleaning in an affectionate attitude on her companion'sshoulder, pointing with her right hand to a group oftwo youthful warriors in front. This pair are joininghands, as if taking leave of each other.This design is very slightly and sketchily treated,but exceedingly graceful as a composition. Thefigures are loosely and freely drawn: the style, if wemake due allowance for the essential differencebetween painting and sculpture, presents manyanalogies with that of the finest Athenian vasepictures. The female figures are evidently meant tobe in a more distant plane than the rest. The relief,therefore, of these figures sinks below the plane,instead of rising out of it, approximating to intagliorilevato. To atone for the want of projection ofthe outline of the body, a channel is made all roundthem to strengthen their effect.the seated female figure rests onwhich is very slightly indicated.The left hand ofthe rail of a seatIn front of this railprojects part of the hind-quarter of a horse, the tailIN THE LEVANT. 25dying away into the ground of the relief ratherabruptly. It was probably finished with colour, andthe rail must have been also coloured, as it is atpresent hardly distinguishable. So with the shieldof the warrior on the left. This is represented in aside-view, the outline not being completed on theside most distant from the eye. The third class ofsepulchral reliefs in the Theseium are small slabs, thesubject of which is generally the well-known funeralfeast, or leave-taking. Ofthese there are but few inthe Theseium, and they seem of a later period than therest. One of these reliefs probably commemoratessome Athenian matron who had died in childbirth.The principal figure is seated in a chair, and holds apyxis on her knees; her attitude is that of a personfainting from exhaustion. Before her stands a veiledfemale figure, perhaps the goddess Eileithya, whoadvances her right hand, as if in token of sympathy.Between these two, and in the back-ground, is athird female figure, holding in her arms a new- bornbabe, wrapped up in linen, on which the seatedfigure places her hand.These sepulchral reliefs have a peculiar interest forus, because in the scenes which they represent, andin the sorrow which they so tenderly commemorate,we have a genuine expression of the feelings of theindividual, which in Athenian art and literature areseldom permitted to have free utterance. Thoughtheir appreciation of domestic life was probably inferior to our own, it is not to be supposed that theAthenians were incapable of the affections andemotions natural to the human heart, because in26 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe outward expression of these feelings they appearto us so reserved. It must be remembered thatAthenian art and literature were essentially forensic,addressed to the whole body of male citizens, gatheredtogether in the temple, the theatre, the Agora, thetribunals, or the Palæstra; while our art and literature, though addressed, in the first instance, to thepublic at large, finds its way into the homes andhearts of men in a way unknown in ancient life, andso appeals rather to the feelings of the individual asthe member of a household, than to those whichbelong to him as a citizen.It is in the tombs of the ancients, where so manyobjects consecrated by domestic affection are stillstored, that we may best acquaint ourselves withtraits of their private life .With reference to the age when these sepulchralbas-reliefs were produced, I am inclined to thinkthat the finest of them belong to the period whenAthens was still an independent state, thoughM. Gerhard thinks that the practice of placingsculptured stela on graves did not become generaltill the time of the Roman empire.In the library of the University I examined aninteresting collection of silver coins of Alexanderthe Great, which had been recently discovered nearPatras.10 The greater part of these coins seem tohave been struck at Sicyon: they were all tetradrachms, and quite fresh, as if just issued fromthe mint with them were found two tetradrachmsof Philip Arrhidæus, one of Seleucus, and twelveAthenian tetradrachms; two tetradrachms of Ætolia;IN THE LEVANT. 27two silver tetradrachms of Sicyon; and also, it issaid, some gold coins of Alexander the Great; butthese last were not secured by the Government.The Athenian tetradrachms in this hoard were ofthat well-known class which may be called PseudoArchaic, having been evidently imitated from theoriginal thick coins of Athens, so celebrated inancient commerce for the purity of their standard.This original currency was probably as muchesteemed in the ancient Mediterranean as theSpanish dollar has been in more recent times, andthe imitation of the archaic type and fabric mayhave arisen from an unwillingness to disturb the oldcommercial associations connected with these coins.The twelve Athenian tetradrachms found in thishoard were much worn; on the other hand, the coinsof Alexander were fresh as when they left the die.It is evident, therefore, that the Athenian moneyhad been some time in circulation. Again, from thefinding of coins of Seleucus Nicator, of Philip Arrhidæus, and of Ætolia, in the same company, it maybe inferred that the time of the deposit of thistreasure was some time in the third century B.C. ,and that the Pseudo-Archaic Athenian tetradrachmswere circulating down to this late period. Theywere succeeded, as is well known, by a broad tetradrachm, slightly dished, which is evidently an imitation of the coinage of Alexander and his successors.This hoard was discovered by a peasant at Patras,in a vase. The coins are, I regret to say, still keptin bags, like the tribute of a Turkish Pasha.In the hands of a jeweller at Athens I saw a28 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESvery fine silver decadrachm of Athens. This is acoin of extreme rarity. I never saw but two; thatin the British Museum, from Mr. Burgon's collection, and one belonging to the Duc de Luynes . Theone I examined at Athens had the appearance ofbeing perfectly genuine.It is to be regretted that the Greek Governmentdoes not build a museum capable of containing notonly sculptures, but those more portable antiquities,such as vases, which are now dispersed, by beingsold to strangers, all note of their discovery beingcarefully suppressed in the course of this contrabandtrade.It is equally to be regretted that excavations arenot carried on at Athens more vigorously. TheGovernment seems to want either the power or thewill to direct such researches; while, at the sametime, it is unwilling that they should be undertakenby private enterprise. Still there exists at Athens,at present, as much interest in archæological studiesas could perhaps be expected, considering thatGreek civilization itself is of so recent a date; andthis interest has been very much sustained by theresidence of so accomplished a scholar as ourpresent Minister at Athens, Sir T. Wyse.The Archæological Society here, of which Messrs.Finlay and Hill, among the English, and MM.Rhangabé and Pittakys, among the Greeks, aremembers, has also done much useful work, by thepublication of new discoveries in the EphemerisArchæologike, a monthly periodical, written inmodern Greek.IN THE LEVANT. 29In the course of my stay, hearing that at Mavrodhilissi , near Kalamo, there were some Greek inscriptions which would repay examination, I visited thisplace, accompanied by Colnaghi. It is situated onthe sea- coast very near Oropo, the ancient Oropos,a town on the Boeotian frontier, which was sometimes held by the Athenians, and sometimes by theBoeotians. Mavrodhilissi itself is a deep ravinenear the sea-shore, situated between the villagesof Markopulo, on the N.W., and Kalamo on the S.With the assistance of a guide from the neighbouring village of Kalamo, we had no difficulty indiscovering the spot.

It is a picturesque and secluded glen, throughwhich a brook flows to the sea. On the left bank ofthis stream I found ancient foundations, evidentlythose of a temenos or sacred precinct; within thisenclosure were a number of large cubical blocks ofmarble, strewn about as if recently thrown downfrom some wall or edifice. On inquiry, I foundthat these had been till lately built up and united byleaden clamps, but that the masonry had beenbroken up to build a new church at Kalamo.On examining the blocks, I found a number of interesting inscriptions containing decrees of proxeniagranted by the city of Oropos to various persons.The magistrates whose names were set forth in thepreambles to these decrees were the Archon ofthe Boeotian Congress of Confederate cities, thePriest of Amphiaraos, and the Archon of Oropos. Ialso found a list of Victors in the Amphiaraia,an Agonistic festival, which, as we are informed30 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESby ancient writers, was celebrated at Oropos. Thisinscription tells us that prizes were given in thisfestival for Epic, Dramatic, Lyrical, and Musicalcontests, also for a variety of athletic exercises andchariot-races. It should be observed that theintroduction of the regular drama into festivalsof this kind was an innovation which probably tookplace in the time of Alexander the Great, andsuch embellishments were thought by the ancientcritics to have impaired the simplicity of the publicfestivals .The date of the inscriptions probably ranged fromOlymp. 116 to Olymp. 145.There can be no doubt, from the evidence ofthe inscriptions, that the temenos at Mavrodhilissi was that of Amphiaraos, which is noticedby Pausanias. The cubes on which the inscriptions were placed must have originally formedpart of the walls of this cella. It may be seen bythe well-known example of the Parthenon that theGreeks were in the habit of covering the inner wallsof their temples with inscriptions.The Amphiaraïon, or Temple of Amphiaraos, ofwhich I thus discovered the site, was of considerable celebrity in antiquity as an oracle which sickpersons consulted for the treatment of their maladies.Here, as elsewhere in the temples of deities to whomthe gift of healing was attributed, the mode ofconsultation was by the process called yxoiμnois orincubation. The consultant, after undergoing lustration in honour of Amphiaraos and the otherdeities associated with him, sacrificed a ram, and,IN THE LEVANT. 31lying down on its skin, awaited the revelations madeto him in the dreams.The cure, however, of the patient did not whollydepend onthese miraculous communications, for therewere medical baths in the temenos, which was agreeably situated in the midst of fountains and brooks.In the British Museum is an inscription from theAmphiaraïon which was brought from Kalamo someyears ago. It contains a decree ordering that someof the silver vessels belonging to the Amphiaraïonbe repaired, and other vessels made by meltingdown old votive offerings, consisting of plate andcoined money. A curious inventory of the objectsmelted down is annexed to the decree.Among those metallic offerings are enumeratedhands, breasts, and other parts of the human body,dedicated by those who had been cured of diseasesby means of the oracle; just such offerings as may beseen executed in marble in the Sculpture- gallery ofthe British Museum.The inventory also mentions a number of tetradrachms and other coins which appear to have beenfastened to the anathemata.Pausanias mentions that near the temple was aspring called the Fountain of Amphiaraos, into whichpersons relieved from disease by consulting theoracle threw gold and silver coins by way of athank-offering or fee to Amphiaraos.These pieces of money were doubtless collected bythe priests and placed in the treasury of the templeas anathemata.Following the course of the brook, I found near32 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe temenos a fountain, which is probably the onementioned by Pausanias. Close to this fountain isa statue in white marble lying across the bed of thestream. It represents a male figure draped to thefeet in a tunic, over which is a mantle, which he isthrowing over the left shoulder, with an action veryusual in representations of Muses; on the feet aresandals. The statue is fairly executed, and itssurface is well preserved; but the head and botharms are gone. Under the base is a square socket,in which an iron clamp has been inserted to fastenthe statue to its pedestal. This may be the statueof Amphiaraos himself which Pausanias saw.The name of this hero is one very celebrated inthe mythic history of Boeotia. He was distinguishedboth as a warrior and a soothsayer, and was one ofthe seven chiefs who fought against Thebes. Onthe defeat of this expedition, he fled, pursued byPeriklymenos, and before his enemy could overtakehim, the earth opened and swallowed him up,together with his chariot; after which heworshipped with divine honours.Traditions differed as to the precise spot where hedisappeared in the earth, and several places inBoeotia and Attica claimed this distinction. Butof all these sites none was so celebrated as theAmphiaraïon near Oropos.The picturesque ravine in which the temenos atMavrodhilissi is situated, narrows as it approachesthe sea, presenting the appearance of a chasm inthe earth; and these strongly-marked physicalfeatures probably influenced the ancients in theirIN THE LEVANT. 33choice of this spot for the site of the Temple of Amphiaraos, suggesting the belief that it was here thathe disappeared,Αὐτοῖσιν ὅπλοις καὶ τετραορίστῳ δίφρῳ.The secluded character of this glen, and the beautyof the scenery, would present many attractions tothe invalid; and, doubtless, like the temples ofEsculapius and other healing divinities, thistemenos must have served in antiquity as a kindof hospital and watering- place.The picturesque character of the spot and theabundance of fresh water probably led the ancientsto associate with the worship of Amphiaraos in thissite that of Pan and the Nymphs. It may bepresumed that this temenos was once very rich ininscriptions, for many fragments have been usedin the construction of houses at Kalamo andMavrodhilissi.The peasants spoke of the speedy destruction ofthose still remaining as a probable event, and, therefore, on my return to Athens, I made a report onthe subject to Sir T. Wyse, and also to M. Rhangabé,in the hope that through their representations theGreek Government might be induced to take stepsfor the preservation of these interesting monuments.As it rained during most of the time of our visitto Mavrodhilissi, I had great difficulty in copyingthe inscriptions, and found it impossible to explorethe site properly. Excavation here would probablylead to interesting discoveries.In the 3rd century before the Christian era, theD34 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESgeographer Dicæarchus in his account of Greecedescribes the Amphiaraïon as situated at a distanceof a day's journey for an active walker from Athens.The fatigue of the journey, he says, was agreeablyrelieved by the number of inns and halting- places bythe wayside.¹¹In the second half of the 19th century the travelleron his way from Athens to Mavrodhilissi passesover a desolate and half- cultivated country, notalways free from robbers, and at the end of hisjourney he finds in the sinister and unwilling hospitality of the Albanian peasant of Kalamo a sorrysubstitute for the inns of Dicæarchus.We had just time, before leaving Athens, to paya hurried visit to Mycena, where I had the satisfaction of gazing on those famous lions which stillguard the gateway of the city of the Atridæ, andwhich Pausanias saw over this gateway seventeencenturies ago. All that he tells us about them isthe tradition, current in his time, that they, togetherwith the walls of Mycena, were the work of thesame Cyclopes who made the walls of Tiryns forPrœtus. Such a legend has, of course, no historicalvalue, except as evidence that the ancients believedthis gateway to be a work of the heroic ages, andone of the most ancient monuments in Greece, abelief in accordance not only with all that weknow of the history of Mycenae, but also with thecharacter of the lions themselves as works of art.The heads of these animals , which in the time ofPausanias were probably still entire, are now wanting, so that it is difficult to form an accurate judg-IN THE LEVANT. 35ment as to the style of the sculpture. Enough,however, of the original surface remains to showthat these two lions are the work of a school alreadyawakened to the observation of anatomical structure.In the modelling of the shoulders and fore legsmore knowledge and skill is shown than at first sightappears; the general proportions are well calculatedto produce the effect of massive grandeur requiredfor the decoration of such a gateway. It has indeedbeen objected that the hind legs of the lions areinordinately thick; but the artist, probably, fell intothis exaggeration, not so much through ignorance ofthe natural proportions, as from the endeavour toproduce an impression of colossal size in harmonywith the Titanic scale of the masonry in which thelions are set as in a frame. And in this endeavourI think that he has succeeded; for in looking atthese lions, the disproportionate thickness of thehind legs does not at all disturb the eye or mar thegrand impression of the whole composition.Dodwell thought that they had an Egyptiancharacter, but to me they appeared more like thework of an Asiatic school; and if we ascribe thisgateway to the Pelopid dynasty, the traditionaldescent of this dynasty from Tantalus may be takenquantum valeat, as ground for the conjecture that theart of Mycena may have been derived from Lydia .The two lions stand on their hind legs, restingtheir fore paws on plinths in front of them. Thisposition is peculiar, and suggests at once the ideathat they are accessories , or, to speak heraldically,supporters in reference to the object between them ,D 236 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwhich appears to be a kind of term diminishingtowards its base. Such an arrangement of a pair ofanimals reminds us of several of the primitive typesof Asiatic Deities, and especially of the figure calledby Pausanias, the Persian Artemis.On the other hand, it is certain that the archaictype under which the Greeks represented theirdeities was that of a term or column, with or without a head. It is therefore probable that the objectbetween the two lions is such a sacred symbol. Ithas been justly remarked, that the lions' heads, nowbroken away, must have looked outward, not at eachother, as there would not otherwise be room forthem within the angular recess in which they stand.Such an attitude at once suggests the idea that theyare placed over the gate as sentinels to keep watchand ward; and it is through this motive that the ancients constantlyplaced lions at the entrance to tombs.Hence it seems probable that the term placed between these two lions is the symbol of some tutelarydeity, the guardian either of the city gate or of thecity itself. Mure and several of the German archæologists suppose this term to represent Apollo Agyieus,"the guardian of ways." Göttling suggests that itmay be Hermes Pyledokos, or " the door-keeper. " 12In illustration of this question it may be observedthat over a gateway of the Carian city Mylassa maystill be seen, sculptured on the keystone, the battleaxe, labrys, which was the special symbol of JupiterLabrandensis, the tutelary deity of the Carian race,and which was placed in the hand of his statue inthe temple at Labranda.IN THE LEVANT. 37With regard to the vexed question whether thesingular conical chamber at Mycenae is to be considered as a treasury or a tomb, I think that the oldtraditional name " Treasury of Atreus," given to itby Pausanias, should be retained, if only for convenience, though there is much to be said in favourof the theory that it is a tomb. Perhaps, as Dodwell suggests, this building may have been at once atomb and a treasury. From the few fragments ofthe sculptured decorations of the doorway, whichhave been found on the spot, and which are now inthe British Museum, it may be inferred that it wasinlaid with marbles of several colours, and that theornaments were like those on the earliest Greek fictilevases. The style of decoration seems more likethat of the doorways of the tombs at Doganlu, inPhrygia, than anything we know of in Greek architecture; and this is an additional ground for connecting the early art of Mycena with Asia Minor.13III.MYTILENE, May 10, 1852.ON our return from Mycena we proceeded bysteamer to Constantinople. After passing the Dardanelles we found ourselves in a climate almostas wintry as we had left behind us in England,and though the month was April, the shores oneach side were covered with snow. It was a miserable sleety morning when we approached the GoldenHorn, and I cannot say that the first aspect of38 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESConstantinople corresponded with that gorgeouspicture which the celebrated description in Anastasius presents to the imagination. But when, afterlanding on the muddy wharf at Tophanah, webegan to plod our way through the steep andnarrow streets which lead from Galata to Pera, werealized at every step all the annoyances which theaccounts of former travellers had prepared us toexpect in this detestable thoroughfare. Juvenal, inhis third satire, describes in a few terse lines themiseries and perils encountered by an unhappypedestrian in the streets of ancient Rome; how hehas to fight his way through the mud, forced forward by the throng behind, only to be driven backby the counter- stream, jostled and elbowed at everyturn by porters carrying great beams or barrels,while ever and anon the nailed boot of some roughsoldier stamps on his toes; the rich man, meanwhile,surveys from his luxurious litter the strugglingcrowd, as the dense mass yields to the momentumof his sturdy bearers. This description, written morethan seventeen centuries ago, will serve for thestreets of Galata at the present day, if we substitutethe arabah and the sedan chair for Juvenal's litter,and for the swaggering Roman soldier the cavasswho clears the way for some Pasha, prancing throughthe mud on a gaily caparisoned steed.Immediately after our arrival I presented my credentials to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, who receivedme with a most cordial welcome, and entered intothe project of my future researches with a livelyinterest, promising that whenever it should be neces-IN THE LEVANT. 39sary to apply to the Porte for a Firman to enableme to make excavations, his influence should beexerted to the utmost in my behalf.Among the letters of introduction which I tookout from England, was one to Dr. Mordtmann, theChargé d'Affaires of the Hanseatic towns, and oneof the few learned men at present resident at Constantinople. He is well acquainted with Turkish andGreek, and has devoted much time to the study ofcoins of the Sassanid dynasty, of which he has alarge collection. He is at present engaged in preparing a work on the ancient monuments of Constantinople, for the illustration of which so little hasbeen done since the time of Banduri.I rode with him round the walls of the city, whichseem much in the state in which they were duringthe Byzantine empire. Built into the masonry aremany Greek inscriptions, which Dr. Mordtmanncopies with great care. Mounting on a high tower,we had a fine bird's-eye view of Stamboul, and I wassurprised to see how large a portion of the spaceenclosed within the ancient walls is devoted to gardens. During the earlier period of the Byzantineempire, the population was far more densely crowdedthan at present, as appears from a passage in thehistorian Zosimus, ¹ who flourished in the latter partof the 5th century. We learn from an edict of theEmperor Zeno, that about this time it was customaryto build very lofty houses, with projecting loggie, orbalconies, and terraces on the roofs; while in thepublic porticos and squares the spaces between thecolumns were everywhere encroached upon by shops40 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESand stalls . The effect of these must have been veryunsightly, for it is enacted that in those parts of thecity which lead from the Milliarium to the Capitol,any stalls placed in the colonnades must be faced withmarble and must not exceed six feet in width and sevenin height, so as to afford free access to the street inparts of the colonnades.15 This practice of placingstalls under public porticos in the ancient Byzantine cities may have suggested to the Turks the planof their covered bazaars, and in this arrangementthe uncivilized conqueror seems certainly to haveimproved on his predecessors .We must not, however, take for granted, thatbecause the city was so crowded during the earlierperiod of the Byzantine empire, the number of inhabitants was necessarily much larger than at present;for till the Latin conquest, much of the space of theancient city was occupied by churches, monasteries,palaces, and other public buildings. Many of theseedifices must have been destroyed long before theTurkish occupation, either by the barbarous Latininvaders, or by conflagrations, as may be inferredfrom the description of the city given by Bertrandonde la Broquière, a Burgundian knight, who visitedConstantinople in 1433, and who remarks that theopen spaces within the walls equalled in extent theportion still covered with buildings.16 It is probablethat the Turks in many cases built their woodenhouses on the solid vaulted substructions which theymust have found everywhere under the ruins; andexcavations in their gardens would probably bring tolight many architectural remains.IN THE LEVANT. 41After reading the pompous descriptions of ancientConstantinople in Byzantine writers, it is certainlysurprising to find so few extant monuments of itsformer magnificence. I was much interested in seeingthe building which the laquais de place call the Palaceof Belisarius, but which seems to be the palace whichByzantine writers call Hebdomon or Magnaura.This is one of the few extant specimens of Byzantinecivil architecture. It is built of bricks of differentcolours, arranged so as to form rich bands of inlaidwork in the interior are columns with highly ornamented capitals. This edifice, called by the TurksTekir Serai, is built on a rentrant angle of the citywall. Near it is a Byzantine church, now convertedinto a mosque, called Kachreie, which I believe fewtravellers visit.17The entrance, as is usually the case in Byzantinechurches, is through a narthex, or vestibule, on thewest, in which are some faded frescoes. A sideaisle on the south is richly decorated with mosaicsboth on the walls and cupolas above: these cupolasare divided into segments, each of which containsthe figure of one of the Prophets . In the spacebetween the cupolas are represented the miracles ofthe New Testament and other incidents from sacredhistory. On the walls are colossal figures muchdefaced, and smaller compositions. The larger figureswere detached against a gold background; in thesmaller compositions landscapes were represented inthe distance, very like those in early Italian pictures .The figures have very long proportions, and aresimply and grandly composed. The colouring is42 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESvery rich and harmonious throughout, and thegeneral effect solemn and majestic, as in the earlymosaics of the church of St. Paolo fuori le Mura,and that of St. Cosmas and St. Damian, at Rome.The effect of the mosaics on the walls and vaulting must have been greatly heightened by thedecorations of the pavement, which is still in manyplaces inlaid with coloured marbles. The body ofthe church, now used as the mosque, was probablystill more richly ornamented; but here the piouszeal of the Mussulman has long since effaced alltraces of Christian art.Of St. Sophia I had but a confused impression,for we could only see the interior by joining a largemiscellaneous party gathered together from severalhotels by the laquais de place, who undertook toobtain the necessary firman at a charge of a napoleon for each person, probably double what it reallycost him.Taking our places in this drove of nose-led tourists ,we gave ourselves up with a feeling of abject dependence, to be dragged through the muddy streets ofStamboul from mosque to mosque, compelled tolisten to the unmeaning jabbering of a Levantinecicerone, instead of being allowed to halt for awhile and contemplate at leisure the mighty structure which, even in its present desecration, theEastern Christian still venerates as the noblest monument of his faith, which in his eyes is a visiblesymbol, not less of the future destiny, than of thepast history of the Oriental Church.The day may come when the staring green andIN THE LEVANT. 43gold texts from the Koran, fixed like hatchmentson the pilasters; the chandeliers suspended fromthe dome as if to plumb its vast abyss; the prayercarpets strewn with the books of the Mollah, and theother outward signs and appurtenances of Mussulman worship will be banished from St. Sophia; whenits internal perspective will no longer be disturbedby an arrangement which forces the eye of thereluctant Giaour to squint Mecca-ward; when itsmosaics, now overlaid with whitewash, and faintlyvisible here and there like the text of a palimpsest,will shine forth in renewed glory, and in their originalcombination with the precious many- coloured columnsand the exquisite lace- like carving of the capitals.But what modern Anthemius could restore theexterior of the building, what amount of polychromedecoration could make this huge, clumsy, naked massof brickwork pleasant to the eye? Admitting that theoriginal design has been much mutilated and defaced,still I think the exterior of St. Sophia shows thatByzantine architecture depended for its externaleffect almost entirely on inlaid polychrome decoration, and very little on the harmony of chiaroscuroproduced by the judicious opposition of plane andprojecting surfaces.Within the precinct of the Seraglio, the government has recently made a small museum in theancient church of St. Irene. Here a few fragmentsof sculptures and inscriptions are flung togetherwithout any attempt at arrangement. Among theseI noticed the upper part of an Amazon, in highrelief: she is represented as rushing forward and44 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESabout to deal a blow with her battle- axe. (Plate I. )To my surprise, I recognized this as a fragment fromthe frieze of the Mausoleum, twelve slabs of whichwere removed from the castle at Budrum by LordStratford de Redcliffe, in 1846, and are now in theBritish Museum. I could get no information as tohow this fragment found its way into the Museumin Constantinople. The figure is, I think, finer thanany on the slabs in the British Museum, and thesurface less defaced than most of them.I also noticed here the head of a serpent inbronze, said to have been broken off from the celebrated triple serpent of the Hippodrome. It is rathercoarsely executed and deficient in style; the eyes, ofwhich only the sockets remain, have been inlaid insilver or precious stones. There is also a curiousplate, with silver figures raised in relief, representingDiana seated, holding in her left hand her bow, andwearing a mantle ornamented with stars: horns risestraight from the top of her head. Below are twogrotesque figures, holding, one, a lion, the other atiger in a leash: both these figures have horns. Oneach side of Diana is a dog, and above her, on theright, a turkey, and on the left a parrot. This is ofthe late Roman period.The few fragments of sculpture which have beenfound in Constantinople itself of late years, seem tobe all Byzantine, and of little interest as works ofart, though they are curious for details of costume. Asepulchral relief of this class in white marble may beseen lying in the garden of the British Embassy, indigging the foundations of which it was discovered. IPlate 1Newton del I taped innyINFRAGMENT OF FRIEZE OFMAUSOLEUM.THE MUSEUM OF THE SERAGLIO . CONSTANTINOPLE.London Published by Day & 3oa. Luth to the Quee (~ MED)

IN THE LEVANT. 4.5visited two interesting collections of Greek coins ,—that of Ishmael Pasha, and M. Michanowitz, the Austrian Consul-General. Ishmael Pasha has no numismatic knowledge, but has a very clear idea of thevalue of ancient coins as articles of commerce. Hekeeps his collection in great sacks, which are broughtin by a dozen attendants. He rolls them out on thetable in great heaps, jingles them in his hands asif they were so many piastres, and then beginscross-examining the Frank numismatist as to theirgenuineness and value; their historical interest beingutterly overlooked.His collection is rich in coins of Macedonia andThrace. The position of a Pasha gives him of coursegreat opportunities of collecting coins at a cheaprate. On my taking leave, he presented me with asmall dagger, mounted in silver, accompanying thegift with an intimation that he hoped I would sendhim a coin or two from Mytilene.The collection of M. Michanowitz not beingarranged in cabinets, I could only examine it in acursory manner; but the coins I saw interestedme very much. During a long residence at Salonica,M. Michanowitz collected almost exclusively thecoins of Thrace and Macedon. His series from thetwo provinces was, therefore, a most rich and instructive one. He has a most beautiful gold coin ofChalcis, in Macedon, identical in type with thesilver coins of the same place.The time which had been allowed for my journeyfrom England to Mytilene having drawn to a close,we proceeded to Smyrna, where we halted for a46 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScouple of days before going to Mytilene. We hadbrought letters of introduction to Her Majesty'sConsul Mr. Brant, and also to Mr. Hanson, who bothreceived us with that genial hospitality for whichSmyrna has always been so justly celebrated.Here I saw the fine collection of coins belongingto M. Ivanoff, the Russian Consul- General, which isparticularly rich in specimens from the western andsouthern coasts of Asia Minor. He also possesses avery fine head of a Satyr in red marble, found atAidin, the ancient Tralles. From the expressionof anguish in the features, I should imagine thatthis represents the Satyr Marsyas when about toundergo his terrible doom at the hand of Apollo.As Mytilene lies directly on the track of theFrench and Austrian mail packets which ply betweenSmyrna and Constantinople, it has the benefit ofsteam communication every two days, an advantagewhich few islands in the Archipelago enjoy.One of these steamers conveyed us accordingly toour new home, where we landed at eleven o'clockp.m. The night was very dark, and the twentythree packages which formed our luggage werepicked out bythe aid of one very inefficient lanternon deck, and pitched into a shore-boat, amid thevociferations of a swarm of Greek boatmen, mingledwith an occasional deep sonorous growl from aTurkish custom-house officer. We should havefelt very forlorn at being thrown out on a strangeshore like a shipwrecked plank, had it not been forthe kindness of two Mytileniote gentlemen, Dr.Bargigli and M. Amira, who had come on board toIN THE LEVANT. 47escort us on shore. On landing, we were receivedunder the hospitable roof of my predecessor, Mr.Werry, who had been promoted, on my appointment,to Benghazi, and who was anxiously waiting myarrival in order to be relieved from his old post.I got up very early the next morning to take alook at my new home, which the darkness hadentirely hidden the night before. Before I had gonemany yards I met a Greek funeral. On the bierwas laid out a young girl about fourteen years old,the face exposed, the head encircled by a chapletof fresh flowers, after the manner of the ancients.If I had been in the mood to care about omens,here was one such as in antiquity might have detaineda traveller ready girt for a journey, or a ship witha fair wind.After breakfasting with our host, I arrayed myself in a magnificent new uniform, too much paddedfor the climate of the Levant, and proceeded withMr. Werry to pay visits of ceremony to the Pasha,the Vice- Consuls, my future colleagues, and othermagnates of the place.The Pasha was a gentleman about fifty years ofa*ge, with an aristocratic aquiline nose, a restlesswary eye, and a sinister mouth, weak, but cunning.He is excessively rich, and has an advantagewhich Turkish officials can seldom boast of; he cantrace his descent to a grandfather. His family nameis Kulaksiz, or "the Earless; " some ancestorhaving, it is to be presumed, been deprived of thosemembers by an angry Padischah. His father wasPasha of Mytilene during the Greek revolution, and48 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEShaving large landed possessions in the island, andthe exclusive monopoly of the oil-trade, took verygood care that it should not be sacked like Scio.In those days the power of a Pasha in a Greekisland was a despotism unchecked except by theoccasional intervention of some greater despot likethe Capudan Pasha. The life and property of therich Rajahs were always in jeopardy, for the Pashawas only too happy to find a pretext for confiscation;and as the Greeks were disaffected, and informersplentiful, such pretexts were never wanting.This arbitrary government has ceased since theTanzimat, and the present Pasha reigns over hispaternal dominions not, perhaps, according to strictconstitutional forms, but with some check frompublic opinion and the fear of an appeal to Constantinople.He received me with that suave urbanity and thosegracious platitudes with which official Turks knowso well to adorn their discourse in a first interview;butmedio de fonte leporumSurgit amari aliquid.The Pasha's manner inspired me with a secretdistrust; there was something feline in his blandishments.forI must reserve my first impressions of Mytilenemy next letter.

Pl . 2 .NESIOPEC.SigriSIGRIONPROMМАР OF HARBOURSMYTILENE (LESBOSLENEReduced from Admiralty ChartN1664 - 1665hsGaval poo Yarde TelemagM OrdymnosC.EresoAcioloanneERESOSC.Vrisa BRISA PROM.TILENE2 3 5 10 15 MILESZeitin MALEA PRen Lith to the QueenIN THE LEVANT. 49IV.MYTILENE, May 30, 1852 .I HAVE now been here long enough to be able togive you some account of this place, and of mymode of life in my new home.18Though the name of Lesbos is one so rich inhistorical associations, and though the island itselfis so conspicuous an object to all who sail past it ontheir way to Smyrna or Constantinople, it has neverbeen much explored, and the accounts given by thetravellers who have visited it are exceedingly vagueand meagre. I shall therefore be minute in mydescription. The town of Mytilene, which the oldertravellers call Castro, but which has now resumedits original name, is situated on a peninsula on theE. side of the island (see the Map, Plate 2) . Thispeninsula consists of a rocky promontory connectedwith the mainland by a low isthmus, on either side ofwhich is a small harbour, one to the north, the otherto the south. These ports were formerly connectedby a canal, called by the ancients Euripus. The rockypromontory, now a peninsula, is therefore spoken ofby Strabo and others as an island, 19 and from thestrength of its position was originally chosen as thesite of the city itself, and afterwards became itsAcropolis. As the population increased, and thesituation became more secure, the town spread fromthe island to the shores of the two harbours.EA50 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmediæval castle, once held by the Genoese familyGateluz, now occupies the site of the Acropolis, andmost of the lower ground which formed the site ofthe ancient town is covered with the houses of theGreek and Turkish inhabitants. The Turks liveprincipally in one quarter, near the north harbour.On the land side the town is nearly surrounded bylofty hills, which completely shut in the view to thewest. At the foot of these hills runs a low wall,which surrounds the town from harbour to harbour,and served for its defence during the Greek Revolution. It was built by the father of the presentPasha at that time.The site of Mytilene resembles that of many otherHellenic cities.20 At a very early period, as Thucydides tells us, the Greeks selected such sites for theircities , cutting off the isthmuses. The advantageof such positions was obvious. The headlands werestrong and sometimes inaccessible positions; thetwo ports connected by a canal enabled theirvessels to put out to sea either with a north orsouth wind, and the narrow strip of rich land alongthe shore served for gardens for the supply of thecity.Of the two harbours, that to the south wasanciently used for triremes, and therefore closedwith a chain: it could contain fifty vessels. Theremains of two moles are still visible at its entrance;two small lighthouses mark the width across whichthe chain must have been stretched. The depthvaries at present from three to one fathom; but,as is constantly the case in Turkish ports, it hasIN THE LEVANT. 51been much filled up from the accumulation of ballastdischarged from ships.The northern harbour was protected from the seaby a more massive mole, portions of which yet remain nearly in the centre of the port. It consists oftwo external walls composed of ashlar-work, withinwhich is a core of rubble cemented with coarsemortar. This harbour is described as deep byStrabo, but it is now nearly filled up with rubble. "¹We learn from Aristotle, that this harbour wascalled Maloeis . The Malea where the Atheniansstationed their fleet and held a market in the siegeof Mytilene, B.C. 428, must have been somewherenear this port on the north of the town.22I could discover no trace of Hellenic walls on thesite of the ancient Acropolis, but the Genoese castleis probably built on its foundations, as it occupies thewhole of the summit of the rocky peninsula. Withinits precincts are numbers of houses inhabited by poorTurks who do not form part of the garrison. Theprotection afforded by its guns must have been formerly of great value when visits of Greek pirates weremore formidable. The family of Gateluz held it tillthe latter part of the 15th century, when it was takenMahomet II. This castle is still kept up as animperial fortress by the Turks, and though a placeof no strength, serves as a depot of arms and tooverawe the town of Mytilene. It is not an interesting example of military architecture, and thecypresses planted about its naked white - washedwalls give it a funereal look. At the foot of theAcropolis the fields are strewn with fragments ofE 252 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESsculpture and painted pottery. To the south ofthe castle is a platform where stand the Turkishprison and the kiosk of the Pasha. Between thisplatform and the castle is a hollow, on the slopingsides of which are found many fragments of Greekpainted vases of all periods. An ancient cemeterymay, therefore, have stood here.The part of the rocky peninsula nearest the castlehas not been encroached upon by modern buildings,which would have interfered with the range of theguns. On the strip of land to the south, lyingbetween a small fort and the harbour, is a littlegroup of houses, the residences of the different ViceConsuls. This constitutes the Frank quarter.Though the natural features of the ground are sostrongly marked, no traces remain of the ancient city,and the whole aspect of the site is so changed bymodern occupation that it is difficult to imagine thathere once stood one ofthe most beautiful cities of theHellenic world, which Horace thought worthy to benamed in the same stanza in which he celebratesRhodes, Ephesus, and Corinth. Fromthe few noticesof Mytilene in ancient authors, we know that thecanal called Euripus by the Greeks was crossed bybridges of white marble, and that here was a theatrethe plan of which excited the admiration of Pompey,and which he wished to imitate at Rome.23 Vitruvius,admitting the magnificence of the architecture, pointsout how badly the plan of the city was arrangedin reference to the prevailing winds. It was soexposed, he says, to the north, and south that thesirocco made the inhabitants ill, the north-west windIN THE LEVANT. 53gave them coughs, and the north, though a healthierwind, was so cold that no one could stand in theopen streets.24The modern town of Mytilene is a straggling,dirty village, the houses, like those of Constantinople,constructed of wood, either entirely, or on a lowerstory of stone. This is a frail mode of structure,but is thought to be the safest in case of earthquake. The timber is supplied from the oppositecoast of Asia Minor. The roofs are of red tile,which gives the town a mean appearance. Thestreet which forms the present Turkish Bazaar issupposed to mark the line of the ancient Euripus orcanal between the two ports. The shops are of thepoorest description; the market for all provisionsbrought in from the country is held in the main street.A few open drains supply the place of sewers, andthe exhalation which an eastern sun extracts fromthem , if not poisonous enough to produce a constantepidemic, is at any rate very disagreeable to theEuropean nose. All the traffic with the interior iscarried on by mules, strings of which, laden withpanniers or with skins full of oil, jostle the passengerat every turn in the street. It is hardly necessaryto add that wheeled carriages are unknown. Allgoods, however heavy, are embarked or disembarkedon the backs of porters. It is difficult in walkingthrough these squalid, noisy, crowded streets, tofeel inspired by the proper admonitus loci.Mytilene is indifferently supplied with water, thoughit has an aqueduct. Many of the public fountainshave had their supply of water intercepted for the54 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESuse of private individuals. In the Turkish quarter,and along the shore of the southern harbour outsidethe town, are large gardens, which are all irrigatedfrom a well by means of a water-wheel turned all dayby a donkey. The sight of the donkey going hishome circuit, and the creaking sound of the wheel,combined with the pleasant shade of the trees,seem always to invite a siesta. The soil of thesetown gardens is rich, friable, and black with thecultivation of many centuries. I often explore themin quest of inscriptions, and, sometimes finding adoor open, walk into the garden of some rich Turk,and find his apples of the Hesperides guarded bya black eunuch, who warns me off with great indignation.The country round Mytilene is still what Cicerodescribed it nearly 2,000 years ago, pleasant andfertile.25 Beyond the town to the south, the land bendsin, forming a bay, bounded by a lofty mountain- ridge.Between this ridge and the sea the coast slopes gradually to the foot of the mountain, and is coveredwith luxuriant verdure, in which the foliage of theolive predominates, blending its silvery masses mosthappily with the tender green of the pomegranate, themyrtle, the fig-tree, and the bay. These slopes arestudded with country houses and villages, as high upthe mountain as cultivation is possible; above, onthe steep rocky sides, flourish the cistus and othermountain plants and shrubs, scattering their aromathrough the pure and delicate atmosphere.In the deep ravines with which the face of themountain is channelled, the course of the winterIN THE LEVANT. 55torrents is marked by a rich red fringe of oleanders,now in full bloom. A paved road winding along thecourse of the ravines, leads to a pass formed by anotch in the steep mountain-ridge.On ascending to this pass a most striking viewpresents itself: on one side is seen the town of Mytilene, and the indented outline of the shore, for evervaried with headlands and bays, with a sea so calmand blue that the island looks as if it were inlaidin lapis lazuli; on the other side is Port Olivieri, avast natural harbour, shut in by wooded hills allround, without a sail, and with hardly a breeze todisturb the even repose of its surface. It takes itsname from the olives which stretch along its fertileshores and up the steep sides of the surroundingmountains far as the eye can reach, investing allthe land in the silver mantle of its verdure, whichwould be monotonous were it not relieved by thecontrast of the deep blue water below.Turning from the scenery of Mytilene to itspresent inhabitants, I experienced a painful shock.Nothing can be less in harmony than Natureand man in this favoured island. A faint tradition of European civilization is preserved in thefew Smyrniote families who have settled here forthe sake of consular appointments or trade, andwhose half- dozen houses form the Frank quarter;but even in this society the interest in subjects suchas we talk of in Europe is but small. The mostcongenial companion whom I have met with hereis a Dr. Perotti, an old Piedmontese refugee, who,though a man of considerable acquirements, has56 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbeen content to dwell in obscurity for many yearsat Mytilene, amusing himself with collecting thecoins and antiquities of the island. The fine seriesof silver coins of Lesbos now in the Bibliothèqueat Paris was acquired through Dr. Perotti.Among the Greeks are no very rich merchants,but a bourgeois class, most of whom are land proprietors, and trade in the oil produced by theirolives. Not the least respectable among them, ifreport speak true, are several elderly gentlemen,who, in the troublous times of the Greek revolution,enriched themselves by the issue of forged money,or followed the profession of pirate-time- honouredin the Archipelago.This native aristocracy, now dominant in the citywhere Pittacus once ruled, have that sleek, contentedair which we associate with the idea of Flemishburgomasters, to whom their picturesque dress stillfurther assimilates them. They generally possess,besides their house in Mytilene, a country house,with a pleasant garden where they smoke and dozelife away in the summer heat.They ride on sturdy mules, and as they wind alongthe mountain tracks remind me of the figures inthe old pictures of the Flight into Egypt. Theiraccoutrements are of the rudest kind-a great clumsypack-saddle, over which is thrown a rug, rope stirrups,and a chain attached to a headstall, for the mules aretoo strong and obstinate for any ordinary bridle.The men generally sit sideways on these pack- saddles ,and the women astride. The first time that a ladywas seen in Mytilene on a European side- saddle,IN THE LEVANT. 57all the people came to see what seemed to them sounfeminine a mode of riding.The women in the town of Mytilene are handsome,but very few of them have good teeth. Like the Greekwomen of old, they wear rouge, and till lately dyedtheir teeth with henna. They have well- cut features,but there is something mean in the whole character ofthe face, and I found more to remind me of the oldclassical type in the massive grandeur of features ofthe Roman contadina. The ladies of Lesbos arejealously guarded by their husbands. Since I havebeen here, I have seldom seen one in the streets .Occasionally they come out of their cage to takea walk of a summer's evening, when they gathertogether on the sea-shore, and strut about in Smyrnafinery, redolent of musk, vain as peaco*cks, and evenshriller in their cackling.It is to be feared the rigid incarceration of somany Danaes has an unfavourable effect on domestic life . It is said that the ladies find meansto avenge themselves on their tyrants, and that themorals of this beautiful little island have not improved since Sappho's time as much as could bedesired.

The Turks in Mytilene are a decaying and decreasing population. With the exception of the Pasha himself, who possesses very large landed property in the island, and his son, there are no very rich Turkish proprietors. They live, as usual, in the seclusion of their own quarter, and are not very friendly to Franks. No Jews have ever been able to exist at Mytilene. A sententious old Turk told us that some years ago some unhappy Hebrews came here to settle as merchants. The first morning after their arrival they took a walk in the bazaar, where they saw the Mytileniotes weighing the eggs they bought, to see if they were worth the paras they gave for them. "This is no place for us, " said the Jews, "these Greeks would be too knowing for us; " and so away they went from Mytilene, where no Jew, said my old Turk, has ever attempted since to settle.

The

entire population of the town of Mytilene is reckonedat about 8,500, of whom from 200 to 300 areforeigners, protected by their several consulates.These are mostly Hellenic or Ionian subjects . Thenumber of Mussulmans probably does not exceed2,000.I have been employing my time lately in exploringthe country in the immediate vicinity of Mytileneitself. The first place which I visited was the Romanaqueduct at Morea, a village distant about an hourto the N.W. of Mytilene. The road to Morea, issuing from the north gate of Mytilene, passes throughan Hellenic cemetery, where sarcophagi and tombsare occasionally found. The remains of the aqueductat Morea extend across a small valley. It consistsof three rows of arches, of which the uppermost isof brick. The lower part is built of squared massiveblocks. It is beautifully proportioned, and, from thestyle, may be ascribed to the Augustan period (Plate3). On a stone in one of the pillars I noticed theletters D M O, probably a mason's mark. Remainsof this aqueduct are to be met with at St. Demetri,two hours and a half from Ayasso, on the road toPlate 3&lnaghiPhotogMYTILENE ROMAN AQUEDUCTLondon Published the QueenW.Levern

IN THE LEVANT. 59Vasilika; also at a place called Larisson Lamarousia,one hour distant from Morea.The village of Morea is one of the most flourishing in the neighbourhood of Mytilene, and has alarge school-house. The richer Greeks of Mytilenehave country houses here, in which they pass theirvillegiatura in the summer. These country housesstill retain the ancient name of Pyrgi, or towers.They are usually tall square houses, with a groundfloor which is only used for housing cattle and farming implements, and an upper story generally consisting of a single room. Above this again is sometimesa third story. The entrance to the upper part of thehouse is sometimes by means of a flight of stonesteps outside, sometimes by a wooden ladder insidethe ground-floor. Some of the older pyrgi alongthe coast of Mytilene are strongly built with squaredblocks. This kind of dwelling-house must have beenoriginally adopted for defence against sudden attacksof pirates.26 The reception-room in the pyrgos of arich Greek is a model of neatness and cleanliness.The floors are washed like the deck of a man- of- war,the napkins snow-white, with a little gold embroideryand a kind of lace at the edges; the divan or sofacovered with white dimity. The lady of the houseis always very smart: her duty is to wait on herguests; but she never sits down or takes any part inthe conversation; that is her husband's business andprivilege. I have had to make a great many visitslately in the course of my rambles, and am nearlychoked with quinces, marmalade, sugar- plums, cupsof coffee, chibouks, narguillas, and various other60 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESofferings, which to accept is often painful to theguest, but to refuse is a certain affront to the host.Continuing along the shore in a N.W. direction, atthe distance of two hours from Mytilene is Therma,a place so called from the hot mineral baths whichstill exist there. Here is a small harbour marked inthe Admiralty Chart as Ancient Mole. The villageof Thermæ is at the distance of about half an hourinland. It is marked in the Chart by its Turkishname Sarelek, " yellow." This name is givenfrom the colour of the water in the hot springs,which are ferruginous. The baths are small vaultedbuildings of a recent period. In the walls are anumber of interesting inscriptions originally copiedby Poco*cke, from which we learn that there was atThermæ a Panegyris Thermiaca, and that Artemiswas worshipped here under the title of Artemis.Thermia Euakoos, " the Propitious. " 27 The connection between the worship of Artemis and theseferruginous baths is very obvious, as the use of suchtonic waters would be prescribed in connection withthe bracing exercise of the chase. The senate andpeople mentioned in these inscriptions are, it is to bepresumed, those of the town of Thermæ. In thefields all round the baths, marbles used in buildings are found in the soil, but I could not hearof the discovery of any sculpture or architecturalornaments.Poco*cke saw here great ruins of buildings, particularly of a colonnade leading to the baths from thesouth, the pedestals of which remained in his time.Along the shore a little to the east of Thermæ are theIN THE LEVANT. 61remains of a sea-wall built of rubble and concrete.The ashlar-work facing has been removed. Aboutten minutes' distance from Thermæ on the road toMytilene, and about the same distance from the sea,is a ruined church called St. Eustratios, with someancient fragments. At the back of the apse is acarved stone with part of two lines of an inscription,in which the word AAMO occurs.Returning from Thermæ I visited a small churchcalled St. Nicolas, at a place called Torre di Firme.Here in the wall on the left side of the doorway isan inscription to the emperor Hadrian as Saviourand Founder of Mytilene. The church is surroundedby a wall with a doorway, on the right side ofwhich is a gladiator in relief, holding his sword inan attitude of defence: above are the remains of aninscription . On the opposite side of the doorway isa bas-relief in similar style, representing a gladiatorkneeling and awaiting the attack of an Indian bull,who is rushing at him: above has been an inscription .These reliefs are in a very late style.Between Thermæ and Morea is Paphila, which isincorrectly written Báftah in the Admiralty Chart.Near this place is a small eminence called Karadipi,with a farm-house or chiflik. In excavations herewere found recently fragments of two statues ofwhite marble. Of one, a male figure, the feet onlyremain. The other fragment consisted of the legsof a female draped figure. The style was notvery good. At Paphila I saw a terminal pillarsurmounted by a much-mutilated bust, perhaps ofsome philosopher.62 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESOn the side of the road near Karadipi is a cippusinscribed " The great Artemis of Therma." Thisseems to have been the base of a statue. It is lyingby the side of the road, partially overgrown withshrubs.Returning to Mytilene by Morea, I noticed at thedistance of about ten minutes from that village aplace by the roadside called Achlea. Here is awarm spring with a bath vaulted over. On theopposite side of the road the face of the rock isscarped, and on it, in very large letters, now nearlyeffaced, may be read the words των ΓΝΑΦΕΩΝ,TŒv yraḍéwv,—“ of the fullers,"-which is evidentlypart of a dedication by a company of fullers, whomade use of the water of this warm spring.28 Immediately opposite to this inscription on the other sideof the road, are the foundations of a small squarebuilding made with mortar, placed at the side of apool of warm water. In the wall of a field betweenthe road and the sea is a sepulchral stelé with threefigures in relief, probably representing a wife takinga last farewell of her husband and son. In avineyard between this spot and the sea are twolarge blocks, which appear to be in situ. It isprobable that a small temple dedicated to the nymphof the fountain stood here.To the S. of Mytilene the coast terminates in apromontory, called Zeitin, the ancient Malea. Itwas here that, immediately before the battle of Arginusæ, the Spartan fleet of 120 vessels, commandedby Kallikratidas, dined on the same day that theAthenian fleet dined on the island of ArginusæIN THE LEVANT. 63opposite them. This place must not be confoundedwith the Malea to the north of the town, where, ashas been already stated , the Athenian fleet were stationed in their attack on Mytilene. It is uncertainwhere the temple of Apollo Maloeis was situated;we only know of it that it was outside the city.The fertile shore lying between Cape Malea andMytilene would afford many places suitable for theholding of a Panegyris such as Thucydides describes 30to have been held at this temple. On the otherhand, if the North Harbour was called Maloeis, itseems probable that the temple was somewhere inits vicinity. I could discover at Cape Malea notraces of ancient remains except the capital of arichly-sculptured Ionic column in a little chapelcalled Panagia Mali, a little to the W. of the Cape.Near this chapel is an ancient cistern used as a well.On the shore between Mytilene and Malea is thevillage of Pligoni, where are columns and some smallremains of ancient foundations.

V.MYTILENE, June 20, 1852.SHORTLY after my arrival, I had a visit from oneof the greatest personages in Mytilene-the Greekarchbishop of that ilk. The island is divided intotwo archbishoprics -Mytilene and Molivo (Methymna) . The archbishop of Mytilene, at thismoment, happens to be a very good specimen of theGreek hierarchy. He has a long flowing beard,64 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScourteous.such as Rembrandt would have studied in paintinga Jewish rabbi. His manners are dignified andHe brought with him to my houseseveral attendant priests: one of them was hispainter, or wygados, whose vocation it is to paintpictures of the Virgin ( called by the Greeks Panagia)and of the Saints. This gentleman was not quiteso courteous as his chief. Seeing a few scraps ofmarble lying about my room, " Are you come,"said he, in an angry tone, " like another Curzon, torob us of our antiquities?"He had read a Greek translation of Mr. Curzon'sbook on the Eastern Monasteries, and the ideaseemed to possess his mind that every Englishmanwho came to the East was a Curzon in disguise.The Archbishop, perhaps from policy, gave no signof such hostile sentiments.Among the Greeks an archbishop still retains theold Byzantine title AsσTórns, or the " Master;" andshortly after my visit, a case came before me officially, which showed me how great is the influenceexercised by the Greek hierarchy over their flocks.An Ionian, who had been beaten and maltreated bysome of the inhabitants of his village, sued thembefore the Mejlis, but could not get any of theMytileniotes to come forward as witnesses; Ioniansbeing here regarded almost as foreign settlers . Heapplied to meas his consul for redress, and at his suggestion I represented the case to my new friend theArchbishop, making an appeal to his sense of justice.He at once promised to excommunicate the whole village, ifthe required evidence was not forthcoming, andIN THE LEVANT. 65sent me an ἀφοριστικόν, or mandate, full of theheartiest imprecations I ever read, which operatedbriskly, producing two live witnesses in the courseof twelve hours. How like the manners of theMiddle Ages. A Greek would rather commit anykind of atrocity than incur the terrors of excommunication. His conscience is made of the same stuffas that of a 12th century baron or a modern Italianbrigand.The other day, the Archbishop officiated at thebaptism of Mr. Werry's child, according to theGreek rite. The ceremony, which took place inmy predecessor's house, was very long, and someof the audience evidently thought it very tedious.The Archbishop was attired in robes, of which thegorgeous fashion has evidently been preserved unchanged from the Middle Ages, and of which theembroidery, stiff with gold, seemed like a reflectionfrom the bygone splendour of the old Byzantineempire. He had six attendant priests, with picturesque long beards. Everybody present held in theirhand an attenuated wax taper, four feet long, andlighted, though the ceremony took place in the day.The child, after a great number of prayers had beenread, was stripped, anointed with oil, and totallyimmersed in water, to its great discomposure andthe amusem*nt of the spectators , who consisted ofall the corps vice- consulaire of Mytilene, male andfemale, and who talked and laughed irreverently thewhole time. The font was made of very commonlooking tin. After the immersion, the bambino wasmarked all over with a metallic instrument intendedF66 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESto represent a seal; then dressed, and placed in thearms of the godfather, who, for fear of accidents,held the child in a scarf suspended round his neck.Then the godfather marched all round the font withhim several times, the Archbishop all the timeexorcising the evil spirits that might be supposedto harbour designs against the unconscious littlesqualler. This perambulation round the font reminded me of the old pagan ceremony calledAmphidromia, in which, seven days after birth, achild was carried in its cradle swiftly round a blazingaltar by torchlight. The resemblance between thetwo ceremonies may, however, only be accidental.31On returning the Archbishop's visit I saw, in thecourtyard of his house, the celebrated marble chairwhich is engraved in Poco*cke's Travels. It is veryrichly sculptured. The back is curved. Two seatedgryphons with outspread wings form the arms ofthe chair. The seat rests on four lions' legs; oneach side below the gryphons is a tripod roundwhich a serpent is coiled . In the front of the chair,under the seat, is the inscription, -ΠΟΤΑΜΩΝΟΣΤΩ ΛΕΣΒΩΝΑΚΤΟΣΠΡΟΕΔΡΙΑ."The place of honour of Potamon, son of Lesbonax. "Below is a footstool, ornamented in front with anarabesque, representing a Triton with two tails.This marble chair is probably from an ancienttheatre, where Potamon must have sat in the frontrow, among the civil and religious dignitaries ofIN THE LEVANT. 67LesMytilene, each of whom probably had his appointedplace marked by an inscription on his seat.39bonax, the father of Potamon, was a sophist and rhetorician, who lived in the time of Augustus, and whosehead the Mytilenæans put on their copper coins, withthe inscription, " Lesbonax, the new hero." His sonPotamon was, like his father, a sophist, and residedat Rome, where he gained the favour of the EmperorTiberius, who, on the return of Potamon to hisnative country, is said to have furnished him witha passport in this form:-" If any one dare to injurePotamon, the son of Lesbonax, let him considerwhether he will be strong enough to wage war withMe. "33Soon after seeing this chair I happened to be passingby an unfinished house just as the workmen had fixeda marble in the side of a window. Seeing that ithad a Greek inscription, I stopped to examine it,and found that it was a dedication in honour of thesame Potamon whose chair I had seen at the Archbishop's house. I ascertained from my dragomanthat the house belonged to an Ionian, who was soobliging as to present the marble to me for theBritish Museum, on my providing him with anotherin its place.Shortly after this I discovered another inscription in which the name of Potamon is associatedwith that of two other benefactors of Mytilene—Pompey and Theophanes.The dedication to Pompey comes first; he is styledbenefactor, saviour, and founder of Mytilene; thename of Theophanes follows, who is called saviour,F 268 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbenefactor, and second founder; and the third nameis that ofPotamon, followed by the same titles as thosebestowed on Pompey. Theophanes was the intimatefriend of Pompey, and wrote a history of his expeditions; and it was through his influence that the greatRoman was induced to restore their liberties to theMytilenæans. In gratitude for these services they puthis head on their copper coins with the inscription,"The Divine Theophanes. " The taste for heroworship under the Roman empire was not peculiarto the Mytilenæans. Rome was full of Greeks likePotamon and Theophanes, who made it their business to cultivate the friendship of the reigningemperor and so to advance their own interests andthose of their native country. Such men in thededications made to them by a grateful country arestyled inoxaíoapes or friends of Cæsar.34In modern days every pasha residing in the provinces employs an agent at Constantinople to lookafter his interests with the Porte, and many of theGreeks resident at Rome during the Empire wereprobably in like manner retained by their respectivestates to plead in their behalf in all cases where themaintenance or extension of their privileges wasconcerned.Yesterday I went to the Greek school to attendthe first day of the annual examination of the boys,which takes place in the presence of the Archbishop.The school is a large, well- ventilated building, withan excellent head master, who gives me a lessonin modern Greek every day. The masters at Mytilene have been of late years rather distinguishedIN THE LEVANT. 69scholars; they are natives of the island who havefinished their education at Athens. M. Lælios, thepredecessor of the present head master, was educatedat a German university, with the sons of ChevalierBunsen, and exchanged his situation at Mytilene fora better post at Smyrna. The proceedings thismorning opened with a long discourse on the merits.of ancient literature by the master, well written andclearly delivered . Then were called forth the twosenior scholars of the first class, one of whom read apoem of his own composition on Lesbos, in the vilerhyme in which the modern Greeks have shackledand imprisoned their language. There is somethingto me revolting in Greek rhyme, -not even a RomaicDante could reconcile me to it.After the poem, the same boy was ordered to takeup a Plato, and construe the beginning of one of thedialogues, first giving an abridged history of the lifeof Plato, which he did vivâ voce, very clearly andmethodically. He then translated a page into modern Greek. I confess that it gave me a shudder, tohear the mellifluous sentences of the divine philosopher tortured and distended and diluted, so as tosuit the modern idiom; but the experiment wasinteresting as a means of comparing the two languages, and must be very valuable for the boys,because the style of Plato is a perfect model forsimplicity, clearness, and strength. Modern Greekis excessively prolix, and its structure clumsy; andthus, in translating from the ancient, much of thecondensed energy is necessarily lost .After the Plato came Homer, preceded in like70 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmanner by an oral biography. The modern pronunciation, which corresponds with the accents, is fatalto the ancient metre; all the quantities are utterlyset at naught. The Greeks feel this, notwithstandingtheir claim to have preserved the tradition of theancient pronunciation, which appears to be a verydoubtful pretension. The want of accordance between ancient quantity and accent is, doubtless,owing to the fact that classical poetry was not composed to be read, but to be chanted, with the accompaniment of music. After Homer came a somewhatelementary examination in moral and physical philosophy, and after that mathematics. The pupil stoodby the side of an immense slate, on which he drewthe geometrical figures, and then went through theproblem.This part of the examination being rather dry, Igot somewhat sleepy, and the Archbishop, who hadnever before beheld a Gibus hat, amused himselfwith moving the springs of mine backwards andforwards. This invention astonished the venerableold gentleman very much. The sight of the largeslate with the diagram upon it, in Greek letters,with the explanation all written in the Greek language, reminded me ofthe schools of antiquity, wheremathematics were probably taught in this practicalway, by making the pupil draw the geometricalfigure on a slate. The examination of the schoolconcluded with the young ladies, who construed St.Chrysostom with great success, and gave biographies of several celebrated characters in antiquity.The tone of delivery was somewhat drawling andIN THE LEVANT. 71nasal, and their French atrocious as that of " theschool of Stratford atte Bowe." At Athens Frenchis better taught. At an examination at Dr. Hill'sschool there, I heard two young ladies recite adialogue from Molière in a very creditable manner.I was so much pleased with the manner of education in the school at Mytilene, that by way ofencouragement I offered a prize of books, to theamount of five dollars, for the best essay to bewritten in modern Greek on some subject connectedwith the ancient history of Lesbos, such as Pittacus.This offer was civilly declined.It is a pleasant surprise to find something topraise in the character of the Mytileniotes, and itmust be confessed that they have shown greatzeal and intelligence in promoting education bythe establishment of schools all over the island.These schools are supported by local rates leviedon the several communities. In the town of Mytilene itself, some years ago, a large sum wasexpended by the inhabitants for the purpose ofgiving an European education to two young men,on the understanding that they were to return toMytilene, and give their acquired knowledge for thebenefit of the island. One of these was educatedfor the medical profession, the other as a schoolmaster. The young doctor unfortunately died; andthe young schoolmaster, in consequence of a misunderstanding between him and the community, leftMytilene, and settled at Smyrna; but the attempt tointroduce European culture, though a failure , ishonourable to the Mytileniotes; the more so, as they72 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdevoted a sum of money at the same time to thepurchase of a set of instruments and machines forthe teaching of natural philosophy, and for theformation of a library of scientific and classicalworks. The classical library I frequently haveoccasion to refer to, and am surprised to find howlarge a number of modern works on archæology,philology, and history it contains. Besides theGymnasium, there are also in the town of Mytilenethree primary schools, one for boys and two forgirls .The natives of this island are thought to show aspecial aptitude for learning, and a large proportionof the bishops in the Greek church are Mytileniotes.They are lively and quick, and have much curiosityon first coming in contact with new phenomena;when they see me copying an inscription, they arecurious to know the meaning and the date; butI do not find them disposed to follow up an inquirywhen real labour is required. Yesterday I wentout attended by a bare-legged urchin, who ran bythe side of my mule. I asked him whether he couldread or write. "No, " he said with a sigh; " I amάɣpάuμaτos ἀγράμματος; " and then, after a little deliberation,came out an aphorism worthy of Pittacus himself:-«Ὁποῖος δὲν ἔχει γράμματα, δὲν ἔχει μάτια.”"He who cannot read, has no eyes. "So, too, thought the ancient Mytilenæans; for it isrecorded of them that they punished their revoltedallies by forbidding them to teach their childrenreading or music, esteeming this prohibition as thegreatest of penalties.35IN THE LEVANT. 73Near the school is the church of St. Therapia,where is an interesting Greek inscription which hasbeen published in Böckh's Corpus.36 It relates tothe restoration of some political exiles to Mytilene,which took place by command of Alexander theGreat, shortly before his death. The Mytilenæanshad made an alliance with him after the battle ofthe Granicus, but had afterwards been compelled bythe generals of Darius to receive a Persian garrison,which was finally driven out by Hegelochos, B.C. 332 .VI.MYTILENE, June 20, 1852.THE Turks have just got through their great annualfast the Ramazan; not, however, without one of thebreaches of the peace which usually occur in thisperiod, when the Mussulman, out of humour fromhis long and painful abstinence from food and tobacco, has his sufferings aggravated by seeing theGiaour in the daily enjoyment of these luxuries .Hence a desire on the part of the Turk to breakthe Giaour's head, which is not unfrequently put inexecution; and there is an annual renewal of thesefeuds, as in the faction-fights of an Irish fair. Acase of this kind has just come before me, in whichan Ionian, having been beat and maltreated by someTurks, I had to apply to the Pasha for redress, bywhom the matter was referred to the Mejlis, or localtribunal. This is a mixed court, composed of Mussulmans and Christian subjects of the Porte. The74 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESPasha of Mytilene presides; the Cadi, or representative of Mahommedan law, sits by him; the GreekArchbishop is also a member. In islands like Mytilene, where the Greeks are rich and powerful, theChristian members of the Mejlis have considerableinfluence, and make it impossible for the Pasha tocommit the arbitrary acts which were formerly socommon.The Mejlis takes cognizance of a variety of cases,civil as well as criminal. There is also anothercourt, called the Mekkemé, which deals only withreal property. Sales of land are ratified in thiscourt, in the presence of the Cadi. A commercialtribunal, the Tijaret Mejlis , has been recently introduced in many places.All matters of dispute between Ottoman subjectsand subjects of European powers resident in Turkeyare referred to the Mejlis; and in every such case,whether civil or criminal, the foreigner is represented in court by his Consul, who acts for him ashis counsel.According to the treaties made between the Porteand the principal European nations, no foreigner canbe arrested and tried without the knowledge of hisConsul; and in criminal proceedings an EnglishConsul always claims a voice in the ultimate decisionof the court.His presence at a trial is always a check upongreat injustice, because he is a witness to the proceedings not to be intimidated or silenced; andif his protest is not attended to , he can alwaysappeal to his Ambassador, —an appeal which, in theIN THE LEVANT. 75case of the English embassy, is seldom made invain.In ordinary cases the Consul is represented at theMejlis by his dragoman; when a matter of any importance demands his intervention, he goes himself.It was on Monday last that I made my first appearance at the Mejlis of Mytilene. Knowing as yetno Turkish, and very little Greek, and being quiteignorant of the form of procedure in the court, Ifelt nearly as nervous when I walked in, as if I wasgoing to be tried myself; but a little experiencesoon gave me confidence.The place of meeting is a large square room, twosides of which, as is the fashion in Turkish houses ,are composed entirely of windows. In the post ofhonour-in the right-hand corner, and facing theentrance-door-sits the Pasha, on a large divan,which runs along the side of the room opposite thedoor. On his left is the Cadi, with a book of Turkishlaw before him. On the right of the Pasha I founda vacant place for me. Then, all down the room, innice gradation of dignity, were, first, the subordinateTurkish members of the Mejlis; then the Greekmembers; then the dragomans and other retainers,who were allowed chairs, but not seats on thedivan.The proceedings open, like all affairs in Turkey,with the bringing in of the chibouques, a distinctionnot extended beyond the precincts of the divan.The tobacco of a Pasha is very pleasant and aromatic, and there is none of that disagreeable thickvapour in the room which arises from the ashes of76 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe European cigar. Opposite the divan stand theaccuser, the accused, and the witnesses, who arebrought in and out as they are wanted by a cavass,or policeman, in a rich dress, with three or four pistols and knives stuck sideways into his belt.The proceedings open in a very slow and formalsort of way, with the reading Turkish documentsby the Cadi; then the witnesses are called. If thecase makes in favour of the Mahommedan accused oraccuser, or other party to the suit, the Cadi letsit alone; if he sees that it is going against the Turk,he turns it in his favour by quoting some readymade precedent, or by some other legal quibble.All that the Consul can do, in such cases, is toprotest, bully, threaten, and finally, if he can get nojustice, report the whole story to Constantinople,where his Ambassador takes it up, and after a gooddeal of bullying and threatening on a greater scale,extracts from the reluctant Government a vizirialletter ordering the Mejlis to revise their decision .This vizirial letter would be practically a dead letterif the Consul did not make it his business to have itenforced; and after a good deal of active and passiveresistance on the part of the local authorities, hegenerally succeeds in carrying his point. In thepresent case the decision of the Mejlis was so unjustthat appeal to the Embassy will be unavoidable.The advantages of British protection in a Turkishcourt are so obvious, that the Ionians are theobject of general envy among the Christian subjects of the Porte. The desire to possess a Britishpassport is so strong that every sort of ingeniousIN THE LEVANT. 77device is practised in order to obtain one. Thedragomans and other persons in the service of aConsul are exempted by the Porte from certaintaxes, and in all matters where their civil rights areconcerned are generally allowed by the local authority the same advantages as Ionian subjects.A Consul has consequently no difficulty in findingany number of Greek dragomans ready to serve himfor nothing, or even to pay him for the privilege ofbeing his employés.Hence some of the unpaid Consular agents in theLevant have a tail of six or seven of these retainers,whose functions are of course purely nominal; butas there is a limit to this abuse, protection is obtained by other devices; sometimes a Rayah makes avoyage to the Ionian islands and comes back witha British passport, obtained by some mystificationof the local authorities there; sometimes the sameresult is obtained by bribing the Consular clerk athome. Sometimes an Ionian from a distant villagepresents himself before his Consul, accompanied bya young man, whom he introduces as his son, justabout to start on a journey to Constantinople andtherefore in want of a passport, which he claims byvirtue of his birthright. In proof of his nationality,a baptismal certificate duly signed by the priest ofhis village is produced, and the Consul issues thepassport; unconsciously depriving the Porte of asubject who has been converted into an Ionian bymeans of a false certificate.Some check to this practice might be given if theConsul were always to insist that the signature of78 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe priest attached to the baptismal certificateshould be legalized by the Archbishop; but thatwould only prevent the forgery of the signature.As for the fraud itself, it would be regarded by theGreeks not only as justifiable, but as a commendableexploit; for to deprive the Porte of a subject is intheir eyes only robbing the common enemy.It is probable, that the most vigilant and uprightConsuls in the Levant are now and then induced bysuch stratagems to give passports to persons havingno right to them: but how it is with those Consularagents scattered over the Levant, to whom*ourGovernment gives the official seal and title with no otheremolument than they can derive from fees? Is it at alllikely that their virtue can resist the constant offer ofbribes? Mr.Werry's predecessor at Mytilene was oneof these unpaid Consular agents, an Ionian by birth.He was naturally anxious to release as many ofthe Hellenic race as possible from the thraldom ofTurkish oppression, and with this view he createdat Mytilene about 200 pseudo-Ionians. Local tradition still records how this venerable old man used tosit in the public café after dinner, with his Consularseal all ready in his pocket. After a certain numberof glasses of rakee had been imbibed, a passport wasalways to be had for a reasonable consideration.Our small society has been enlivened by thevisit of a French gentleman, M. L--, who residesat Maltepe, on the opposite coast, the ancient promontory of Cane, where he has bought a largeestate for the cultivation of olives. He lives therewith a large retinue of native servants, but cut offIN THE LEVANT. 79from all European society. His house is a pyrgo,with one large room on the first floor; the groundfloor being devoted to cattle and farming stock. Theother day this gentleman had a visit from twentyfive pirates, who landed on a little island off thecoast, where M. L——— has a quantity of sheep. Hetold his shepherd not to grudge them anything theymight want, and they had the modesty to be contentwith thirty-five sheep! M. L-- looked on thewhole affair with great complacency, regarding theloss as a species of black mail, such as the ScotchHighlanders used to levy on the rich Lowlanders.M. L- gave me some information as to the different systems of holding land in his part of AsiaMinor. Much of the land there is held as a speciesof metairie; that is to say, the proprietor, at the endof the year, when the land requires ploughing, takesinto his employ one or more peasants according to theamount of land requiring cultivation. The peasantproceeds to plough the land under the followingconditions:-isHe finds the plough and oxen, the landlord findsseed, and pays him in advance a sum of moneysufficient for his maintenance during the periodbetween seed-time and harvest. When the cropgathered in, a division of the produce takes place.First is set apart the tithe claimed by the State;then the seed for next year, always consideredsacred, like the treasury of an Oriental monarch;then the landlord takes as much corn as will repayhim for the advance he has made to the labourerduring the year. Whatever remains after these80 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthree subtractions is equally divided between landlord and labourer.If the landlord has no ready money, the sum advanced by him to the labourer has to be raised onthe security of the ensuing harvest; if the harvestfails, he has to borrow again on the next harvest.Without such expedients business could not becarried on in a country in which there is so limiteda circulation of specie, and in which Banks and Billsof Exchange are unknown. If the means of transport were improved, and the roads more safe fromrobbers, the landlord would of course be able toconvert his crops into ready money at a distantmarket, instead of pawning them in advance.M. L has planted a large number of oliveson his property, which he hopes to cultivate according to the system adopted in the South of France.I learnt from him and other Greek merchants here,the following particulars respecting the cultivationof the olive-tree in Mytilene.It appears that the natives are so ignorant andindolent that they take little pains to improve whatnature has bestowed so abundantly, for the olivetree grows wild all over the island. The cultivatedtree is usually grafted on a young vigorous wildstock. Olives like a rich clay; they flourish onthe sides of hills and in valleys formed by the alluvial deposit from mountains; but there shouldalways be a free circulation of air. On the sides ofthe hills the soil is cleared, or défriché, for the plantation in the following manner: -It is cut intoterraces, which are supported by walls, to preventthe earth from being carried away from the roots.IN THE LEVANT. 81These plantations run up the sides of the hills ashigh as there is sufficient depth of soil, above whichthe wild olive grows among the rocks nearly to thesummits of the hills; thus all through the summerthe surface of the island is covered with evergreenfoliage. The olive requires the earth in which itgrows to be ploughed or dug not less than threetimes a year; but the proprietors in Mytilenegenerally grudge this necessary labour. The firstploughing ought to be in January, the last inMay. Manure produced by the sheep, goats, andother cattle on the hills, is ploughed in to nourishthe soil. This manure is very light and friable,and no straw is mixed with it. The allowanceis a mule-load to a full-grown tree, and half amule-load to a smaller tree. The price of a day'sploughing is ten piastres (about 1s. 8d . ) , includingthe hire of a yoke of oxen. A day's digging costsfive piastres.The tree requires to be pruned from time to time,in order that the air may circulate freely throughits branches.The constant breezes of Mytilene, and the abundant supply of fresh water, are two causes whichhave probably much aided the cultivation of the olivehere. The roots of the olive-trees absorb most ofthe riches of the soil , leaving little nourishment forother plants. Sometimes olive-trees remain barrenfor two or three years; and this barrenness mayextend over a whole district. This is very muchthe case in Mytilene at this time.The quantity and quality of the oil depend on aG82 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESvariety of conditions: firstly, the kind of tree andmode of cultivation; secondly, the time chosen forgathering, whether in October, before the fruit isripe, or in the two following months; thirdly, themanner of gathering.In Mytilene, and generally in the Levant, theolives are beaten from the tree with staves. Theobjection to this is that the operation is generallyperformed violently and clumsily, and the youngshoots of the olive which contain the germ of thenext year's crop, and which are put forth in theautumn, are broken off in the course of the beating.The nature of the olive-tree is to renew these shootsannually in the autumn; consequently, if they arethen broken off, the tree has no germs for the cropof the ensuing year; and this is said to be onechief reason why the olive-trees of Mytilene onlyproduce fruit every two years. In the south ofFrance ladders are employed to reach the branches.Fourthly, the quality of the oil depends on thetime that elapses between the gathering of the cropand its grinding. In Europe they send it to themill immediately after gathering it; but in Turkeythis cannot be done till the tithe of the gatheredcrop has been taken. The delay of collecting thistithe detains the olives from the mill till aboutFebruary. The olive kept in store during theinterval of two or three months between the gathering and grinding loses something of its freshness,and cannot be preserved except by salting,additional expense.to be considered. Where the oil is carefully made,—— anNext the mode of grinding hasIN THE LEVANT. 83as in Italy, the olives are ground first with stonesset wide apart, so as not to crush the kernels; by asecond grinding the kernels are crushed, and a rank,inferior oil is produced. These two oils are keptseparate. In Mytilene the kernels are always groundin the first grinding; and the object being the quantity, not the quality of the oil , one inferior kind isproduced instead of the two separate products.Lastly has to be mentioned, the mode of pressingthe olives when ground or reduced to pulp. InMytilene the pulp is pressed in hair bags with warmwater; in Italy the bags are made of rushes, andcold water only is employed. The Italian bags havebeen tried in Mytilene, but the old process is preferred. In Mytilene the same pulp is pressed severaltimes through the same bags, each time producinga coarser kind of oil. The produce of these successive squeezings is all mixed together. In Italy, thepulp, after one pressure, is thrown out into largetanks, so as to produce what is called huile lavée.For the pressure of the pulp in Italy, an hydraulicpress has been introduced; in Mytilene the primitive hand-press is still employed. Steam-power hasbeen tried, but does not seem to be approved . InItaly the greatest care is observed in washing themill and press after use, in Mytilene none.The oil produced in Mytilene is partly consumedin the island, in the manufacture of soap and forlamps, the remainder is exported to Europe foroiling machinery. Formerly the quantity of oilexported ranged from 200,000 to 220,000 quintals,or 10,800 to 11,900 tons . The severe winter ofG 284 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES1849 destroyed about 25 per cent. of the olivetrees, since which time the exportation has not exceeded 40,000 quintals, or 2,160 tons.VII.MYTILENE, September 30, 1852.We have lost the eternal chirping of the summerinsects, whizzing through the air all day, and spoiling their brilliant wings at night in the flame of mylamp. The great host of locusts has vanished withthe summer; it is now some weeks since the longbrown fringe of their dead bodies lay on the edgeof the sea, forming a border two or three incheswide to the indented shore, which used to frizzledaily in the sun like a pen when you put the end ofit into a candle.Since I have been cut off from all English society,I amuse myself by going on board the steamerswhich call here, for the chance of exchanging a wordwith some passing traveller. The other day I saw acurious collection of Polish Jews going down fromConstantinople to Jerusalem. They all stood in arow on the deck, with their faces to the east, andsaid their prayers while the vessel was anchoredoff Mytilene. One of the Greek boatmen who hadtaken me on board opened his eyes very wide at thenew phenomenon. He had seen all manner of Christian and heathen folk congregated in these greatfloating Noah's arks, but never a row of Polish Jews.IN THE LEVANT. 85Hands, face, garments, beards, everything aboutthem was Isabeau colour.In these days the Levantine steamers exhibit acurious mixture of people, a sort of miniaturepicture or microcosm of the Levant world. Halfthe quarter-deck is turned into a hypæethral harem,railed off for the accommodation of the ladiesof some great pasha going down to Rhodes or Syriato grind his subjects , or up to Constantinople tobribe his way into advancement or out of a scrape.This chancel is guarded by a row of black eunuchs.The Turkish ladies not having often the chance ofbeing so gazed upon, make the most of the opportunity, and contrive to let the breeze get under thecorner of their veils from time to time, recoveringthe truant folds with a feigned confusion; " etse cupit ante videri. " On the opposite side of thequarter-deck are the European and American travellers, with beards in various stages of development.On the other side of the funnel is an unclean massof deck passengers, generally a company or twoof Turkish troops, all eating garlic and breadwith unanimous breath. Dotted about are grimfanatical- looking Turks, with green turbans andshaved heads, and beards of a severe cut, men ofthe ancient régime, who would delight to pound aChristian in a mortar and make him into ink towrite verses of the Koran with, if they could. Thenthere are generally two or three German pilgrims,who have begged their way on foot from Cologneto Jerusalem, and are going back with a certificateto show that they have been there, to display in-86 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStheir native Deutschland. In a corner may be oneor two pirates or brigands going up in irons toConstantinople to be executed, or to buy their wayout of prison, as the case may turn. These are thechief phenomena that strike a stranger, and it iswonderful to think that this little world, composedof such antagonistic elements, should live so peaceably on board without diplomatic or consular intervention to settle their disputes.I have been spending a week very agreeably withmy friend Mr. Hughes, one of the attachés of theembassy at Constantinople. We made a three days'excursion into the interior of the island on mules, forthe purpose of exploring Mount Olympus, which issituated between the two great harbours of Olivierior Iero and Kalloni. The first part of our route layacross the northern shore of Port Olivieri, where thesoil is a rich alluvial deposit, covered with mostluxuriant vegetation, -millet, Indian corn, olives,growing intermixed with all manner of rank herbageand rushes, a sign of neglected agriculture and wantof drainage. This district has always fever hangingabout it in summer. From this place to Ayassothe road ascends gradually, winding along ravines.The variety of trees in these glades forms anagreeable contrast to the district round Mytilene,where the olive-tree fatigues the eye from themonotony of its foliage. We halted on our way ata most picturesque spot called Carinæ, -a kind ofnatural amphitheatre with a large square tank,through which flowed the most abundant and limpidwater: all round were giant plane- trees, with trunksIN THE LEVANT. 87twisted into a thousand fantastic forms. Herewe sat for a while, and dipped our crusts in thefountain, and thought what a blessed thing itwas that this place was far beyond the reach ofco*ckneys, and that its silence was never profanedby the sound of champagne- corks and the din ofknives and forks rattling against the sides of thepigeon-pie of European pic-nics.•We arrived at Ayasso just after sunset. It is alarge Greek village, planted in a hollow, with hillsall round. The streets are narrow, precipitous, dark,with a gutter of very black mud in the middle, anda small causeway for foot- passengers on each side.Overhanging wooden houses nod at each other acrossthe way, and intercept all the blue sky except anarrow strip. Hence, the place has something ofthe character of a European town in the MiddleAges, only without the rich carving on the woodwork. We asked for the konak, or official residenceof the Aga, and after mounting a narrow staircase, the steps of which were covered with theslippers of his retainers, entered the presence- .chamber of that great functionary. The villageAga is a sort of reduced copy of the great Pashaof his island, and his konak is a rude imitationof the konak of the capital. The salle de réceptionis a large square room with no furniture in it; chairsand tables are Frank innovations, only to be metwith in towns like Mytilene. Along one side runs adivan, above which the whole wall is full of windows.In the corner of this divan sat the Aga, a keen,shrewd, good- looking man, of about fifty, with a88 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESvery good address, talking Greek to those whocould not speak Turkish. I presented the Pasha'sletter, which he read three times with profoundattention; he then sent for the Greek primates ofthe village, who are to him what the aldermen areto the Lord Mayor, and for the fourth time he readthe mandate, explaining its purport in Greek, -howthe Pasha had ordered the primates to give theConsolos Bey and his friend from the Embassyevery possible attention; how it was the duty of thewhole village of Ayasso, collectively and individually,to devote themselves to our service during our stay.Then we were billeted for the night on a Greek, towhom I also had a letter of introduction, andadjourned to his house with the Aga. We found avery clean, neat little room, with the same divanand windows on one side, and wainscot with vastcupboards and closets all round. The sides of theroom were ornamented with very quaint paintings,such as the Greek village folk delight in, -flowers,strange animals, and in one compartment a verypeculiar view of Constantinople, treated in a symbolical manner, the whole shipping of the GoldenHorn being indicated by a single vessel, the SeraglioPoint by a cypress-tree, and the rest of the city beingrepresented in an equally abbreviated form.When we were installed on the divan, with theAga between us, the Greek primates at the sides ofthe room, the wife of our host waiting on us, with pipesand coffee, and the cavasses and retainers rangedat a respectful distance near the door, we felt exceedingly happy. The Aga was very agreeable; andIN THE LEVANT. 89the Greek lady kept bringing coffee, and Turkishsweetmeats, and large tumblers of water, and slicesof water-melon, and grapes, and pipes, to our hearts'content.Still we wanted something more substantial, andexpressed a wish for some supper. After about halfan hour of this light skirmishing with water-melonsand such things, the main body of the banquet wasbrought up. A sturdy co*ck, immolated for theillustrious strangers, appeared on a dish by himself-one leg unsubdued by the stewpan, stood outlike a bowsprit, —a fatal sign of toughness; but thetraveller who arrives in a Greek village after sunset,without previously announcing his arrival, must nothope to find meat fit to masticate. Then there wasmacaroni, salt-fish in a semi- cooked state, cheesemade of goat's milk, more water-melons, more coffee,more pipes, more sweetmeats. We ate our way veryphilosophically through all this, more to please ourhost than ourselves, and then adjourned to two verycomfortable beds.A Greek bed is not such a troublesome, cumbersome thing to prepare as a European bed.The lady of the house simply opens a cupboard,takes out a mattress, a pair of sheets, and twoyourgans or quilts, which she lays on a scrupulouslyclean floor. There is the bed all ready. The roomneeds no other preparations; for jugs and basins,such as we use, are unknown. Neither of thesearticles, or even a tooth-brush, is to be got for loveor money in the town of Mytilene, though it has adirect trade with Europe.90 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESNext morning we got up very early, and startedin a large party to ascend Mount Olympus, whichis the highest point in the island, and according tothe Admiralty chart, is 3,080 feet above the level ofthe sea. We were escorted by the Aga, the primates,our host, and a whole heap of attendants on foot. Oneman carried the Aga's umbrella to keep the sun off,another his gun, another his pipe; and the wholeprocession, as it wound up the steep mountain-path,reminded me of an Assyrian frieze, with a king orsatrap, and all his followers in single file.The scenery in ascending this mountain is mostbeautiful. We passed through endless glades of chestnuts and walnuts, the vegetation becoming graduallymore scanty as we approached the summit, whichis a sharp ridge of white marble. The ascent fromAyasso occupied about an hour and a half. Theview from the top of Mount Olympus is very fine;half of the island, stretched out like a map at ourfeet, Scio and other islands in the distance, and amagnificent line of headlands and bays marking theopposite coast of Asia Minor. On a very clear dayAthos can be seen from this mountain.On our way down we stopped to breakfast ina charming sort of kiosk. It was the first timethat I had ever seen a regular Oriental banquet.The lamb roasted whole by a fire in the open air,the vast plane-tree under which we reclined,with grapes hanging from every branch, the layerof aromatic herbs which formed the table-clothunder the lamb, were all refreshing novelties tosenses blunted by civilization. We had knives andIN THE LEVANT. 91forks, but the Aga ate with his fingers. Carvingthere was none; each man made a scavo into thelamb wherever he thought proper; and, lookingat the question with English eyes, I certainly feltthat this mode of eating produced a great wasteof the raw material. But it was all Homeric, andthe air was so fresh, and the herbs so aromatic,that much in the manner of feeding passed unobserved, which would not be pleasant to look atin a dining-room. Then we had wine of the place,which seemed to us, in such an atmosphere, quite asgood as the best Bordeaux, and abundance of caviareand water- melons and grapes. The Greeks ate theirbreakfast at a separate table; the day being one oftheir fasts, their meal consisted entirely of caviareand fruit. After a certain number of pipes, we gotunder weigh again, and taking leave of our hospitablefriends till the evening, started in a new direction tosee a place called Pyrrha, on the eastern shore ofPort Kalloni, the site of one of the ancient citiesof Lesbos, where the Greeks told us we should findJaúμarα θαύματα,, "wonders." Pliny mentions that thistown was swallowed up by the sea. Strabo speaksof it as destroyed, all but the роάστει , or suburb,which was still inhabited in his time.37 Specimensof its ancient copper coinage are still extant. Themodern name and other circ*mstances fix its site atthe entrance of a small bay. The position is markedas Pyrrha in the Admiralty chart, No. 1654, butnot in the larger chart, No. 1664. Our road layacross the neck of land which separates Port Iero orOlivieri from Port Kalloni, and was the roughest I92 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESever travelled on; but Mytilene mules are capable ofcrawling up any path where a man can climb withoutrequiring the assistance of his hands. After passingthrough some very picturesque well- wooded ravinesnear Ayasso, we came to very high ground coveredwith a forest of the pitch-pine, which produces agood deal of pitch every year. The average quantity of this article exported from the whole island isabout 330 tons. The fallow deer runs wild in theseforests.After passing through this forest, we came uponthe vast and silent harbour of Kalloni, which reposeslike an inland lake within an amphitheatre of mountains, and with hardly a sail to enliven its surface.This port is entered by a narrow strait called inantiquity the Euripus of Pyrrha.On arriving at our destination, we found that theThaumata did not amount to very much, thoughthere was enough to indicate the site of an ancientcity. Massive foundations running into the seaare probably the remains of an ancient mole to protect the harbour. On a rocky hill overlooking theshore are steps and seats cut in the rock, a suresign that the Greeks have been there. Here thenwas probably an acropolis with temples. On theshore of the Gulf of Kalloni, at the distance ofthree- quarters of an hour to the S.E. of Pyrrha,is a place which still retains the Hellenic nameof Temenos. Here are ancient foundations; theground is strewn with fragments of red pottery.We returned in the evening to Ayasso, and homeagain in the morning, having taken an affectionateIN THE LEVANT.333 93leave of our hosts. The Greeks will not acceptmoney for this sort of hospitality, but their servantsand children do not object to a little bakshish; sothe expense of board and lodging comes to aboutthe same as at an inn.VIII.November 10, 1852.I HAVE just returned from a very interestingexcursion in the western part of the island, theobject of which was to visit Eresos, now Ereso, thebirthplace of the celebrated Sappho, and which is onthe S.W. coast of Mytilene. This route gave mean opportunity of studying the peculiar configurationof the island, which gives a great variety of scenery.On the S.W. side—that is, on the side most distantfrom the opposite Asiatic coast-are the two vastharbours, or rather gulfs, Olivieri and Kalloni,which I have already mentioned, and which run sofar inland as to leave a very narrow isthmus in themiddle of the island . At the head of each of thesegulfs is a level plain formed by alluvial deposit,fertile, but marshy, and full of malaria. Betweenthese two gulfs the hills rise very abruptly, forminga rocky isthmus, of which the part I have traversedcontains forests of the pitch-pine, where are wilddeer. In these pine forests the air, impregnatedwith the aroma of the pitch, is most refreshing.The first day I proceeded from Mytilene to94 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe village of Kalloni, and halting there for thenight, started the next day by an inland roadover the mountains for Ereso. I ascended froma picturesque and thickly-wooded country to awild and barren mountain- tract, which runs allthrough the western half of the island as far asCape Sigri. As we climbed the steep mountainsides, vegetation gradually disappeared. At thesummit of the pass I saw about twenty vultureswheeling round and round in the air almost withinshot, waiting for an unhappy partridge, which tookthe opportunity of our arrival to escape. From thishigh ground is an extensive view over the westernpart of the island, with Cape Baba, the ancient Lectum Promontorium, in the distance on one side, andTenedos on the other. The air here was deliciouslybracing; in the valleys were strange antiquatedvillages, full of Turks, who gazed upon us withwondering eyes, as if they had never before seen aEuropean traveller. At the distance of two hoursand twenty minutes from Ereso is the village ofKythera, where I was told that at the distance ofhalf an hour among the hills was a place calledTiranda, where inscriptions were to be found.I arrived at Ereso full of hope, expecting, fromthe remote situation of this place, to find someremains of the ancient city. But I was toldthat about fifteen years ago there had beenmany sculptures, some of which had been carriedaway by a French traveller, and that the monksof a neighbouring monastery had taken the inscriptions and ground their colours with the inscribedIN THE LEVANT. 95surface till there was nothing left . Imagine thepages of ancient history ground away to makecolours wherewith to daub a wretched image of thePanagia! However, I found a very intelligentGreek monk acting as schoolmaster, who had collected a number of fragments of inscriptions in hishouse. He was a fair scholar, and had studied atAthens. I was astonished to find such a man in sowild a place; a monk thus enlightened by educationis a rare phenomenon in this part of the Levant.He took me to see the Acropolis of Ereso, of whichthe situation is most striking. It crowns thesummit of a rock rising straight out of the sea. Anold Genoese castle, called Palæo Castro, now occupies the site of the Hellenic citadel.At the west end of the castle is part of an Hellenicwall built of squared blocks, the inside filled withwell- compacted rubble.In the same part of the castle is a tunnel- roofedcistern which seems mediæval.At the foot of the Acropolis, on the E. side, is apiece of ancient wall, composed partly of polygonal,partly of isodomous blocks, built on the rock, whichis cut in beds to receive it . One piece of this wallis 27 feet in length, its present height is 8 feet, butthe upper courses have been removed. Anotherpiece, a few feet distant, is 18 feet 8 inches in length,and a third, 7 feet 6 inches. On the W. side ofthe base of the Acropolis is the mouth of a squarewell, the sides of which are formed of good Hellenicmasonry. The fields on the N. side are strewnwith fragments of ancient pottery. Many columns96 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEShave been taken away from this place on account ofits vicinity to the sea.After visiting the Acropolis, I explored a littleroofless chapel, such as are to be met with all overthe island, and which always contain relics of ancientbuildings and sculptures. Here I found a veryinteresting inscription covering three sides of alarge marble slab. Much of it was unfortunatelyobliterated, but on one side was a letter from KingAntigonos (probably Gonatas) respecting the return of certain exiles to Eresos, who had beenbanished in the time of Alexander the Great.39As I was staying in the house of the chief manof the village, a worthy Greek farmer, I asked himwhether I might have this inscription. He assuredme that I was free to take it, and as a preliminarystep we decided on removing it, into the house ofthe Greek schoolmaster. I therefore proceeded,with a yoke of oxen, to the place where it waslying, in order to take possession of it, and in thisattempt roused all manner of dormant opposition.First, the Turkish Aga of the district, who happenedto be in the village, interfered. This enlightenedfunctionary wished to know whether there wasany treasure in or under the stone; but desistedfrom all opposition on my producing a letterfrom the Pasha, authorizing me to prosecutemy researches for antiquities in the island whereverI liked . My next opponent was the proprietorof the field in which the church was situated. Theinscription, according to the opinion of my friendthe primate, was the property of the village, andIN THE LEVANT. 97might therefore be given to me; but the lady of themanor took a different view of the case, and deniedthe right of any one to remove it. On my arrivalwith the yoke of oxen, I found her already in possession of the field of battle, seated on the stoneitself, in the apse of the roofless chapel. She wasa lady about forty, with very regular features,modelled after the classical type. At the sight ofour sacrilegious party she became animated withthe fury of an ancient Pythoness. She boweddown to the ground before the stone at leasttwelve times, kissing it, and crossing herself eachtime; then she lit a fire and burnt incense, to purifythe place from our presence, and with great horrorflung out of the sacred precinct some chicken-bones,the remains of our yesterday's luncheon. I saw fromthe first that she was utterly beyond the reach of persuasion, and in my despair having exhausted my littlestock of Greek, began to talk English to her, a sureway to aggravate an angry native in the Levant.They always imagine that the unknown words whichthe stranger utters are spells and curses which, fromnot knowing their import, they cannot meet withcounter spells and counter curses.10 Finding it hopeless to prevail with the lady in possession, I next madean attempt to enlist in my favour the two cavassesby the mention of the magic word bakshish. Butthe opposition which I had to encounter was basedon two motives which it was impossible to circumvent by stratagem, or set aside by force. The Turkshaving the idea that the stone contained treasure,wanted to smash it up; the woman imagined it to beH98 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe palladium of the little chapel; and betweencupidity and fanaticism, I broke down in myattempt, and finding nothing to be done, beat anignominious retreat, taking with me my yoke ofoxen.It may be not uninteresting to you to know whatis the present aspect of the land which gave birthto Sappho. The country about Ereso is mountainous; in the valleys there is rich land aboundingwith corn and wine. No olives are grown here, andthe inhabitants being forced to labour constantly fortheir bread, have more industrious habits than inthe districts near Mytilene. The lowlands are notsqueezed up into ravines as much as they are aboutMytilene, but expand into small plains, so that thereis more space and elbow-room in the landscape. Inmost parts of the island, I always feel pent up as itwere in a rocky prison, from the want of level groundfor exercise. The mountains are of considerableheight, rising into most picturesque and abruptforms. The rocky crags near the summits of thesemountains are full of caverns and holes, the fastnesses of the eagle and the hawk, who are seen forever wheeling in mid- air, watching for the partridgein the valleys below. The voice of Eolian minstrelsy is heard no more in the birthplace of Sappho,but the echoing hills resound with the cry of shepherds calling to each other, the bleating of new-bornlambs, and the melodious tinkling of thousands ofsheep-bells. The verdure at this season is as freshand tender as that of the spring in England. ThisTheocritean landscape was all the more agreeable toIN THE LEVANT. 99our eyes from the promise it gave of abundance ofmilk and cream, such as Polyphemos offered andGalatea rejected. In this hope we were not disappointed. Our host, a jolly old Greek primate, gaveus a delicious supper of homely but choice fare. Herewe first tasted the protogala, or first milk after thebirth of the lamb. It is excessively thick, with ataste and consistency like that of Devonshire cream.The bread at Ereso is also excellent. It seems tohave been highly esteemed in antiquity, for an oldGreek poet, Archestratos, who wrote an epic poemon the art of cookery, says that, if the gods eatbread, it is to Ereso that they would send Hermesto buy it. "We found in Ereso and the adjoining villagessimpler manners and a more freehanded hospitalitythan anywhere else in Mytilene. The women wouldbe perfect studies for a painter. On festivals, theyall go to church with white veils edged with adeep crimson border, which fall to the waist. Theyreminded me of the figures on Greek vases; andthe veil is doubtless a relic of ancient costume.We returned home from Ereso along the shore,over a road which can only be described as a rockyladder, a goat-path, worn by dint of thoroughfareinto a mule-path, along which the iron-shod hoofsof these persevering creatures have probably trodfor 2,000 years.In the middle of our journey, we came to a strangeoutlandish village called Mesotopo, or Half- wayHouse. Here we halted for the night, and found alarge party seated round a blazing hearth, over anH 2100 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESexcellent supper of fried fish . It was the firsttime I ever saw Greek women admitted to the banquet with the men, or saw a man have the civilityto hand anything to a woman. It happened that wewere here the guests of people less sophisticatedthan the bourgeois class in the Mytilene villagesgenerally are.The house consisted of one long, large apartment:at one end was the fireplace, at the other a raisedplatform, separated by a wooden railing from therest, forming the sleeping-place of the family; thewalls were solidly built of stone, and every articleof household use hung on them: everything wasscrupulously neat and clean. This kind of houseseems to be preferred in the agricultural districts ofMytilene, as the pyrgo is in the olive districts .The supper was put upon a tray, which was balanced on a small table turned upside down. We allsat on the floor. Each woman in succession, beforeeither eating or drinking, said, Kalôs orisate, —" Youare welcome," to the strangers, and then crossedherself instead of saying grace. These women,sitting on the floor with their children in their arms,formed very graceful compositions, reminding me ofmany groups in ancient art.On the coast, in the direction of Ereso, at thedistance of half an hour from Mesotopo, is a ruinedchurch called Miltane. Here are foundations of anancient wall, but no inscriptions. On the shore, inthe same direction, at the distance of one hour anda half from Mesotopo, and near a place calledCampos Krousos, has been a square tower calledIN THE LEVANT. 101Palaio Pyrgo. The base, which still remains, measures 28 feet by 29 feet. The blocks are wellsquared, and in dimensions about 3 feet 8 inches by1 foot 8 inches. From the character of the masonry,this basem*nt would appear to be Hellenic, ormay have been rebuilt with old materials. I wastold by my guide that some years ago, a quantityof Medieval coins ( Florea) was found in the CamposKrousos, near this Pyrgo.On a hill near this spot is the church of St.George, in which I found part of a cylindricalcolumn, with an inscription in Latin containing thenames of the emperors Constantine the Great andhis sons Constantine and Constans.We returned from Mesotopo along the shore ofthe Gulf of Kalloni. The road by which we passedout of Mesotopo appears, from the great size ofthe blocks of which it is composed, to be an ancientpaved way. Opposite to the small islands at theentrance of the gulf is a piece of wall on the lefthand side of the road, composed of large polygonalblocks. This wall is called Makra, and is at thedistance of about ten minutes from the sea. Itruns east and west for about 60 paces; its heightis 14 feet. A second wall at right angles to itmay be traced for 49 paces. *42We returned along the N.W. shore of the Gulfof Kalloni by a most picturesque and beautifulroad. Here the wild fowl were as plentiful as thepartridges at Ereso. The sea throws up on thebeach a great variety of marine products, such assponges and mollusca; the abundance of which in102 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthis gulf is noticed by Aristotle in his History ofAnimals.43We returned home by Kalloni, at the head of thegulf. Everywhere we found very comfortable bedsmattresses on clean floors, and good wholesome food .The Greek host has no ideas of any hospitality,except that which satisfies the animal wants. Immediately after supper, the mattresses are broughtin and his guest is expected to go to bed. Theconsequence is , that the night at this season of theyear is of the most wearisome length.IX.MYTILENE, December 6, 1852.As yet I have been unable to make distant excursions, on account of the difficulty of finding atrustworthy person to leave in charge of the ViceConsulate in my absence. In Levantine consulatesthere is usually an officer called a Cancelliere, whoacts as the Consul's secretary, keeps his archives inorder, and acts as his official deputy. These Cancellieres are generally Levantines, and it is difficultto meet with a genuine Englishman qualified forsuch an office, which requires a knowledge of Greekand Turkish, and familiarity with the ideas, customs,and forms of legal procedure in the Levant. I have,however, been so fortunate as to secure the services ofMr. J. Blunt, the son of H. M.'s Consul at Salonica,IN THE LEVANT. 103who, after having been educated in England, hashad the benefit of two years' careful official training,under his father's eye, at Salonica. He is a verypromising young man, and his arrival has greatlyenlivened us here. He represents me in all ordinarycases at the Mejlis, where he has shown so muchtact and address, that the Pasha, who has beentrying to circumvent and thwart me ever since myarrival, is beginning to act in a more straightforward manner. Very soon after Blunt's arrival, hehad to appear in court on behalf of an Ionian, whoclaimed a debt from a Rayah. The debtor pleadedthat he had discharged the debt, and produced areceipt duly signed, which the creditor declared tobe a forgery. The court was disposed to believethe Rayah, when Blunt very ingeniously pointed outthat the receipt, which professed to have been writtenseveral years ago, was on stamped paper; whereasit was well known that stamps for receipts were notintroduced by the Porte till the year subsequent tothe date of the receipt. Of course the forgery wasadmitted after this. Such frauds constantly takeplace, and are never punished as crimes; but ifdetected, the perpetrator loses caste, not on accountof his villany, but because of the clumsiness of hismanœuvre.After living in very inconvenient lodgings for manymonths, I have at length installed myself in my newhouse, which has been built for me by a rich Greek,with the agreement that I am to pay an annual rentof £32 for it as long as I reside in Mytilene. Afterduly concluding this agreement, and completing the104 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEShouse, the landlord, like a true Mytileniote, wantedme to pay a higher rent, and as our contract wasnot on stamped paper, and was drawn up by anamateur lawyer, he might have tried litigation , hadhe not been afraid of going to law with a Britishconsul. In writing the receipt, he forgot to signhis name till he was reminded. Such oversightsare very characteristic of Mytilene.The other day, I received a letter from the Pasha,which he wrote with the greatest unwillingness,under threat of an appeal to Constantinople. He,too, was as careless as my friend the Greek; for hesent the letter forgetting to put his official seal toit! This oversight was of course detected at once;the Pasha then made a lame apology.The house will ultimately become the dower ofmy landlord's daughter, now about eight years old;for, by a custom very general in the Turkish Archipelago, every father is bound, on his daughter's marriage, to endow her with a furnished house. "The architect is a native genius, who is styledMaestro Luca. When I first asked him to submitto me the plan of the house, he stooped down anddrew on the ground with a bit of stick a few rudelines, marking out the position of the different rooms.The foundations were then laid out, and the wallsbuilt, entirely by rule of thumb, without either planor specifications. The result is much better thanI expected. The house is airy, spacious, and notuncomfortable, notwithstanding the rudeness of thecarpentry. No doors or windows in Mytilene willshut properly. Locks and hinges are of the clum-IN THE LEVANT. 105siest kind, such as we should hardly think goodenough for an outhouse in England. The woodemployed is an inferior sort of deal, imported fromthe opposite coast of Asia Minor, full of knots, andfinished in a rough unsightly manner. The windowshave no leads , and come down with a run; but theframes are so exceedingly slight, that this is not soformidable an evil as it would seem to you. Theyare more like the frames of a cucumber-bed thanwindows; but they are protected outside by greenshutters, which bear all the brunt of the wind.Now that we have fairly installed ourselves inour barrack, we feel very comfortable, according toour rough notions of comfort. We live in a roomwith a large table and a bookcase, both of unpainteddeal, a pair of rocking- chairs, one on each side ofan enormous fireplace, on which the ligna super focorepose, without either fender, grate, or fire-irons.The fuel is olive-wood, split into great logs, whichyield a pleasant unctuous blaze. In one corner of theroom is a large packing- case, lined with tin: thisserves as a store-room, where we keep all manner ofhousehold things, locking them up after every meal;for we cannot trust anything in the hands of our oneservant, a Mytileniote boy. The house containsneither carpets, curtains, nor sofas; but the fineclimate reconciles us to the loss of much which wouldbe indispensable in Europe. Our great deficiency iswholesome food. I am at present without a cook,having tried and dismissed three since I arrived atMytilene. Our meals are prepared at the house ofmy Dragoman, who farms us at so much per diem.106 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESI notice that every day the food supplied by himdeteriorates a little in quantity and quality. I conceive, therefore, that this astute descendant ofPittacus is deliberately trying the experiment onhow little Englishmen can be fed, and how muchtheir patience will bear.One day, a fowl was brought us for dinner. Wenoticed a certain discomposure in its general aspect:its limbs were more than usually distorted; its surface ragged and gritty; and there was a singularabsence of all gravy. There was, too, a strangeflavour about this fowl; but a good appetite doesnot stop to speculate on such phenomena, and weate our dinner in unsuspecting confidence. It wasnot till many days afterwards that we were informedthat in its passage to our house this unhappy birdhad been dropped in the street gutter, picked upagain by our Greek serving-boy, wiped, and replacedin the dish, minus the gravy.Last night we had from the Dragoman our usualdinner of two plats, one of which Blunt declared tobe cat disguised as hare; but I assured him thatthe Mytileniotes starved their cats so effectuallythat it would have been impossible to find any fleshon their bones. Blunt is a capital ally, particularlyfor coins. He goes about all sorts of unfrequentedstreets, hunting for antiquities, and drawing downon himself thereby many angry looks and inquiriesfrom jealous husbands and duennas."It is not coins you are looking for, ' pallikari, ""said an old hag to him the other day; " you arelooking for black eyes. "IN THE LEVANT. 107WeThe unpós, as the Greeks call Colnaghi, is alsonot a bad hand at bargaining for a coin.go out all three together into the villages, andhold long parleys with the natives, seated onthe raised platform of the rustic kafé, each ona little low stool, with a cup of coffee in his handand a paper cigarette in his mouth. In order tosucceed in this sort of traffic, it is necessary toaddress people in their own language and in theirown way, smoke out of their very dirty pipe if theyoffer it, drink their coffee, and employ every art toingratiate oneself with them. Then, by degrees,comes out the very information you are in search of.After you have sat for about an hour, and have invain demanded coins (mongoures, as they call them) ,some fellow comes up and produces a battered Byzantine coin; then comes another. If you buy, themere sight of a piastre brings a whole crowd roundyou. Then the plan is, to get on your mule andmove a few yards towards home; upon which theprice instantly begins to fall. You ride on; thecrowd gradually tails off, till, about two hundredyards from the village, you are entreated to buy theparticular coin which you secretly wished to have,but did not venture outwardly to show any anxietyabout.A few days ago our solitude was broken in uponby two travellers who crossed over from Assos onthe opposite coast, a young Irishman and a somewhat apathetic and beery German from Saxony, andwho, being desirous of seeing something of Mytilene,started on a little tour with me. The first part of108 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESour route was in a caique. The day was lovely, thesea perfectly calm. I saw an immense fish shapedlike a carp leap twice right out of the water, glittering in the sun like a mass of gold. We rowed to aplace called Yeni Liman, " new haven, " on the N.side of the island. It was the first time I had madean expedition in a caique. The scenery was so lovely,and the weather so agreeable, that I could thinkof nothing but that famous cruise of the god Bacchus, described in the Metamorphoses of Ovid, andsculptured on the frieze of the Choragic monumentof Lysikrates; how he put to sea in a boat mannedby Tyrrhenian pirates; how they tried to throw himoverboard; and how he then revealed himself as agod, turned the mast into a vine, and transformedthe pirates into tunny-fishes. It is in such a climateand on such a coast as that of Mytilene that theseold myths can be most thoroughly enjoyed.HeWe slept the first night at the village of Mandamatha, near Yeni Liman. I had a letter of introduction to a very respectable old Greek gentleman ,at whose door we knocked at about 8.30 p.m.answered not; so we went elsewhere for lodging.The next day he called upon me, and embracingus all very tenderly with a salute on the cheek,apologized for not letting us in: he was so afraidof pirates. Probably this was a polite manner ofdeclining the duties of hospitality.About half an hour from Mandamatha is themonastery of Taxiarches (the Archangel Michael) .The walls inside were covered with all manner ofpaintings on tablets representing the patron saintIN THE LEVANT. 109of the church. In one place I remarked a napkinwith a figure of the archangel embroidered in goldon it . I asked what this was, and was told thatthe embroidery was an offering made by the womenof Mandamatha on the feast of the saint to whomthe church was dedicated. Here we have a customexactly analogous to the Athenian ceremony ofoffering a new veil to Pallas Athene on the occasion.of her great festival, the ornaments of which werethe exploits of the goddess, embroidered by theAthenian maidens. Thus, in the Greek templeand in the Byzantine church, the local legend wasfirst recorded and celebrated in permanent monuments of art, and then in ephemeral and perishablematerials, such as veils and napkins.On the sea-coast, at the distance of one hour anda half to the S.E. of Mandamatha, one hour fromPalaio Liman, and two hours and a half from YeniLiman, is a roofless church, dedicated to St.Stephen (Agios Stephanos). In front of the altaris a flat stone, on which is a Greek dedication bythe people of some unknown place to a lady calledAllobogiona, the daughter of Deiotaros, in acknowledgment of her services to the city. This nameseems to be Galatian.46Close to Palaio Liman, within the bay formedby the promontory Tokmakia (called in the chartTomari) , is a place on the shore called Anoiktò ,where are fragments of columns and foundations.Here is a large well, which may be antique. The soilis very black. This place is distant two and a halfhours from Mandamatha, and two hours from Yeni110 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESLiman. Near Anoiktò is a village called Marianthyia, where are ancient fragments. Immediatelyto the S. of this the land bends in, forming a bay; itwill be seen by the chart that this is the narrowestpart of the neck of land between the Gulf of Kalloniand the N.E. coast. Somewhere here then musthave stood Ægiros, placed by Strabo on this coastwhere the isthmus was narrowest. The fragmentswhich I noticed at Anoiktò may belong to this place,though Strabo speaks of it as only a village-xóun. "From Mandamatha we went to Molivo, thesite of the ancient Methymna. Here I presentedmy credentials from the Governor to an aga, whocould not read, -a retired Janissary. He sat turning the letter different ways in despair. I couldtalk no Turkish, and had no dragoman with me;luckily I had a letter for the Greek schoolmaster ofthe town, a pleasant, well- educated person, whogave us a very hospitable welcome. The Greekschoolmasters are always the most intelligent persons in the villages: their education at Syra orAthens gives them some glimmering of Europeanideas. He showed me three inscriptions, whichtook me a whole day to decipher; one of them wasan alliance between the Romans and Methymnæans,but very mutilated: these I afterwards found to beunpublished. I could hear of no coins in the place.There is a curious little harbour, what the ancientgeographers called a λιμὴν κλειστός, or “ closedport, " evidently unchanged from antiquity, withan ancient mole, and the ships crowded togetherlike little boats. I went over the fortress , whichIN THE LEVANT. 111was probably built by the Genoese. On enteringit, I noticed over a doorway, on the left-hand side,a Byzantine inscription , recording that it had beenrepaired.-From Molivo we went to the neighbouring villagePetra, situated on the sea-shore, and still celebratedfor that wine " quam Methymnæo carpit depalmite Lesbos." In the centre of the village is avery steep rock, on the summit of which is a smallchurch. This may have been an Acropolis, and hasgiven the village its name. Here we were magnificently entertained by a rich but somewhat pretentious Greek, who had lived at Smyrna and Constantinople, and consequently had nothing of ruralsimplicity in his manners.Here, for the first time in travelling in Mytilene, Ienjoyed the luxury of a regular bedroom and a bedstead, instead of a mattress on the floor; but thoughthe house was very well furnished, still we found nojugs or basins, only the old ewer and pewter basinwith a colander.From Petra we went across the narrow part ofthe island to Port Kalloni, a beautiful ride. Weslept at a place called Agia Paraskeue. The gentleman to whom I had a letter was out olivegathering, and, in his absence, his wife gave usrather a chilly reception; the more so as, aftereating up all her fowls, we still felt hungry. Thehouse where we lodged was an old one, and underthe whitewash I saw traces of mural painting.At the entrance, and immediately over the denof a very savage live dog, was an old picture112 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESof a house-dog on the wall. I thought at onceof the cave canem dog on the mosaic at theentrance of a house at Pompeii; and, on inquiry,was told that it was anciently the custom inMytilene to paint a dog over the entrance ofthe house. About ten minutes' walk from thisvillage is a very curious chapel in a cave, calledσπήλαιον τῆς ῾Αγίας Παρασκευῆς. It is hewn out ofthe rock, and probably dates from an early periodof Christianity.Externally, the rock is cut into the form of afaçade, thus:-In the centre is a square-headed doorway, oneach side of which is an archway of inferior height,sculptured in relief, with low mouldings. Inside isan irregular oblong space about 21 feet long by13 feet 6 inches wide.FE모GDkA A. Rectangular pillars dividing the chancel,or iɛpór, from the outer space, G.B. Altar, called ἅγιον βῆμα, and ἁγία τράπεζα.c. c. Two small tables formed by rectangularprojections.D. Apse.E. Small square window.F. Entrance.Between the two pilasters A A hangs a cloth usedas a veil. The opening, partially concealed by thisIN THE LEVANT. 113veil, is called ωραία πύλη. The altar is a squareslab placed on a column. On the altar the priest'svestments lay covered with a cloth. Of the tablesCC, the one on the north side is the highest. Onitis placed the sacramental cup, ῞Αγιον ποτήριον ΟιΔισκοποτήριον, covered with a cloth. In the wallsare archways cut in relief, and in each archwaythe figure of a saint is painted; the ceiling is alsocovered with paintings. In the outer division ornave, the paintings on the roof represent ourSaviour in the centre, surrounded by the fourEvangelists. These paintings are very much blackened by the smoke of the lamps. Those on theroof of the hieron appear old; the rest have beenmuch restored. On the left of the entrance isanother small cave, called Apotheke, with nichesand a large stone seat cut in the walls. It is nowused as a magazine.From Agia Paraskeue, we rode home by Pyrrhaand Ayasso.X.MYTILENE, December 15, 1852.SOME weeks ago I reported to the Embassy a casein which the Pasha and Mejlis of Mytilene had refused to punish a Turk for beating an Ionian. Inconsequence of this complaint, the Porte, at theinstance of Colonel Rose, sent Ali Nehad Effendi,an imperial commissioner, to investigate this chargeof mal-administration of justice, who has now beenI114 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESstaying at Mytilene for several days. He was forsome time secretary to the Turkish Embassy atVienna, and speaks French with perfect fluency,an very fair English. He has studied Europeanmanners, and has consequently substituted for thegraceful and courtly ceremony of Turkish demeanour a brusquerie which does not seem morenatural to him than the European uniform does tothe modern Turkish soldier; but he is a good,clear-headed man of business, and if his professionsare to be believed, has severely reprimanded thePasha for his conduct in the case which I had torefer to Constantinople. Probably, the Porte tookadvantage of this opportunity to extort from theunlucky governor of Mytilene a heavy subsidy in aidof the distressed finances of the empire. Ali NehadEffendi asked me if I had any other grievances tocomplain of, and I pointed out to him that the commercial tribunal called Tijaret Mejlis had never beenintroduced into Mytilene, though it had now beenestablished in the principal towns of the Turkishempire. This court is composed of Turkish andChristian members, of whom some are Ottomansubjects named by the Pasha, others Europeanschosen by their respective consuls. Its jurisdictionis restricted to purely commercial cases, and isguided by rules derived from the French Code deCommerce. It has now been established in Turkeyfor some years, and is of great service to the mercantile world. Ali Nehad Effendi at once carriedout my suggestion, and ordered the Pasha to establish this tribunal. I took advantage of the visitIN THE LEVANT. 115of the Imperial Commissioner to explore the citadel,which I have been in vain trying to enter for sixmonths; but at his word the iron door flew openlike magic, and the obsequious commandant showedus every part of the fortress . I found little ofinterest except an inscription, in which the name ofFrancis Gatelusio occurs, and the date 1373. Thisinscription is over the gate called Orta Capou. Itis as follows: -mo.ccc.lxxiii dnprima Aprilismagnificus et potēs disdis franciscus . gatelusius. dñs . insule . metelini . et è fecit fierihoc edificium.It is inscribed on an oblong stone divided into fourcompartments, thus:-On the right a double- headedspread eagle, crowned. Next a monogram; next the bearing of the Gatelusiofamily-a shield papillonné; lastly, theabove inscription.AThe Francesco Gatelusio mentioned in this inscription was one of a noble Genoese family, whichwe find in' possession of Enos, in Thrace, about themiddle of the 13th century. By a treaty in 1352,the Byzantine emperors ceded to the Genoese inPera many commercial rights and privileges, and itmust have been very soon after this treaty thatFrancesco Gatelusio sailed from Genoa with twowell-armed galleys, on a roving expedition in theBlack Sea.At Tenedos he fell in with John Palæologos, thenI 2116 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESat war with his father-in-law and rival on the imperial throne, John Cantacuzene.Palæologos at once engaged the Genoese adventurer in his service, and by his aid accomplished thedaring stratagem which gave him possession of Constantinople, and dethroned Cantacuzene.On a dark stormy night in December, 1354,a large ship was driven by the wind towards theport of Heptaskalon at Constantinople. Thesoldiers who guarded the tower at the entrance ofthe port were induced to open their gates by thedeclaration of the crew that their vessel carried avaluable cargo of oil and was in danger of foundering, and that a large reward would be given forsalvage. The guard having been thus inveigled fromtheir post, two galleys following in the wake of themerchantman landed a body of troops, who seizedthe unguarded fortifications, and being joined by thepartisans of Palæologos, proclaimed him emperor.For this exploit Gatelusio was rewarded with thehand of the sister of Palæologos, and invested withthe sovereignty of Mytilene as her dower.He was succeeded by his son Jacobo, who obtainedfrom the Sultan the ransom of the Count de Neversand other lords of France, taken prisoners at thebattle of Nicopolis, and conveyed them to Mytilene.Froissart, who tells us this, describes the wife ofthe lord of Mytilene as " perfectly well-bred, and asfully accomplished as any lady in Greece, for in heryouth she had been brought up at the court of Constantinople, with the lady Mary of Bourbon. " Headds, that she gave the French prisoners a mostIN THE LEVANT. 117kind reception and clothed them with fine new linenand cloth of Damascus.49The Gatelusio family reigned in this island till1462, when Nicholas, the last of the dynasty,after gallantly defending the castle of Mytilene,surrendered it to Mahomet II. The dynasty ofGatelusio struck coins in silver and copper, which areof great rarity, and have been only recently identified numismatists. Since I have been there I havesucceeded in obtaining a small collection of thesefor the British Museum.50A portion of the castle called Chan Koolessy isseparated from the remainder by a moat. Here arethree towers, connected by a curtain-wall. In thewestern face of the centre tower is an oblong slabinscribed with three escutcheons. On the left adouble spread eagle, crowned; next, a cross betweenfour B's, the arms of the Palæologi: on the right,the coat of the Gatelusio already noticed. "1Below are six slabs, with reliefs representingRoman gladiators, in a late coarse style. They areapparently on the same scale as two or three in asmall church at Therma which I have already noticed (ante, p. 61).Here and there I copied fragments of Greek inscriptions, and in the wall of a street was part of adedication to Pompey with the title of Soter. In thecastle is the Kuli Jamessy, built by Sultan Mahomet II. in 1462, after the conquest of Mytilene .This mosque has been so much repaired that verylittle is left of the original building.There is another mosque in the citadel, called118 ' TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESMahmoud Pasha Jamessy, after the grand vizier ofMahomet II. This seems to have been an ancientByzantine chapel converted into a mosque.Thecastle is garrisoned by a small force of native militia,commanded by a binbashi or colonel.Ali Nehad Effendi invited me to Smyrna tosee a recently-discovered amphitheatre outside thetown. " I must give you a guard of cavasses, 'he said, " otherwise the brigands will assuredlylay hold of you. " The condition of the environsof Smyrna is something quite incredible.Themerchants can hardly walk a yard out of thetown without being robbed. This state of thingshas been brought about partly by the imbecility ofthe Turkish government, partly, I grieve to say,by the complicity of certain Europeans with thebrigands; the result of which is a conspiracy againstproperty, ramifying through all classes of society.Nobody in Smyrna knows whether his servant, oreven his friends or acquaintances, are not in secretcommunication with the terrible Janni Katerji, thehead of this band of robbers .A short time since three Smyrna gentlemen, oneof them son of a rich Greek merchant, went outshooting near a village where many Europeans havehouses, but which has long been the resort of brigands. They had not gone far before they metJanni Katerji, who constantly visits Smyrna in openday in disguise. He accosted the three unhappysportsmen very courteously, and asked them to havesome coffee, according to the usual Eastern fashion.When they had drunk their coffee, he informed them,IN THE LEVANT. 119with the greatest civility, that the richest of the threemust pay a ransom of £700. The prisoners weredetained by the brigands about twelve hours, till themoney arrived from Smyrna, when they were releasedwithout having experienced any maltreatment. Whatmakes the matter worse is that the father of thegentleman who had to pay the ransom, had done hisbest to persuade the governor of Smyrna to grant apardon to Janni Katerji, to take him into his serviceand pay him so much a year, in order to keep theneighbourhood of Smyrna clear of brigands, in fact,to make a Turkish Vidocq of him. But the Turksdid not enter into the scheme, and so Janni Katerjiis still at large.Yesterday we had an interesting ceremonial here.The Archbishop of Mytilene has just been madea member of the Synod at Constantinople, a steptowards the higher dignity of Patriarch. Yesterdayhe was installed in his new office, and bid farewellto his flock here. The ceremony took place inthe principal church of Mytilene, when he was invested with his new robes, and very gorgeous theywere; consisting of a tiara covered with jewels, andvarious robes stiff with gold: at his side hung asquare piece of embroidery on which he kneels.The ceremony lasted several hours. First was animmense deal of very nasal and most detestablechanting; a chorus of pigs and cats could nothave been worse. Then came the changing ofrobes, which was done by a number of priests. Eacharticle was blessed and kissed by the Archbishopbefore he put it on, and after each of these blessings-120 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe priest kissed his hands. After the robing, theArchbishop sat on his throne, and the hierokeryx, orpreacher, who forms part of the episcopal retinue,ascended into a lofty pulpit and delivered an extempore discourse in very fluent and classical Greek inpraise of the Archbishop. This gentleman wore amost picturesque black veil or coif, and a gown of thesame colour; his action was rather singular, withvery much more gesticulation than is practised in ournorthern climes . Then the Archbishop made a parting speech in very beautiful language; sheddingtears, which I really believe to have been genuine,if anything of the kind can be warranted genuine inthe Levant. At the close he begged his flock toforgive him, if, in the course of his ministry, hehad failed in his duty; and descending from thepulpit at the close of his discourse into the densecrowd of listeners, he bowed to the ground threetimes, turning his body in different directions , andsaid, " My brethren, my brethren, forgive me, " threetimes. After the Archbishop had with great dignitygone through this parting ceremony, he retired withthe whole body of priests into what we should callthe chancel, where the sacrament was administeredto him. A long procession, flanked by torches andsilver crosses, conveyed the elements into this innersanctuary, where no layman is admitted. The breadwas borne on the head of a priest, the cup in thehand of another, both concealed from the gaze ofthe multitude by a blue cloth spangled with gold.IN THE LEVANT. 121XI.MYTILENE, February 20, 1853.HAVING occasion to go to Salonica last month onbusiness, I took advantage of this opportunity ofvisiting the Troad and Gallipoli. I went straight bysteamer from Mytilene to Salonica, where I passedthree days very agreeably with Mr. C. Blunt. He hasbeen for many years in European Turkey, and duringthe greater part of that time has been activelyemployed as British consul first at Hadrianople, andthen at his present post at Salonica. I gathered muchfrom his conversation as to the present conditionand prospects of Turkey, respecting which he doesnot speak very hopefully.Salonica is a dirty town, full of Jews, who emigrated to this place on their expulsion from Spain.Its commercial prospect has been steadily increasingof late years, in consequence of the large quantity ofcorn exported here.The most interesting relic of classical antiquity isthe Incantadas. This is the name given to part of acolonnade apparently erected in the time of Hadrian.The colonnade is supported by Corinthian columnshalf-buried in the ground, above which are squarepilasters, each of which has on two faces a figuresculptured in relief.52 Among these figures areDionysos, Hermes, Ariadne, Ganymede, Leda, aBacchante and a Victory. The name Incantadas122 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES(" the enchanted figures ") was given to this colonnade by the Spanish Jews of Salonica, in whosequarter it stands.In a narrow, dirty street still stands an archerected by Constantine the Great. It is ornamentedwith two friezes, in low relief, one above the other.On the upper frieze is represented the Emperorin a triumphal car, attended by a troop of cavalry,passing from a gate on his left to another onhis right, within which appear buildings and atemple with a figure in it placed on a rock, probablyrepresenting the Acropolis. At each corner is aVictory holding up a trophy.The lower frieze represents a battle- scene, the conquered party being barbarians in the Dacian costume.In the centre is a figure on horseback, probably theEmperor, attacking the leader of the barbarians,who is falling backwards, as if he had received hisdeath-blow. In the right-hand corner is a figurein a chariot rushing forward into the middle of thefray, probably a Victory. In the left-hand corneris a figure with a shield, on which is representedin relief a figure of Hercules, holding in his righthand a club, and on his left arm a lion's skin.After leaving Salonica, we went to Gallipoli,where we were comfortably lodged in the house ofM. Sitrides , the British consular agent, a veryintelligent and obliging person. He showed mesome interesting antiquities in his house andabout the town. The most remarkable of these isa group sculptured in high relief, in white marble,which belongs to a relation of M. Sitrides. ItIN THE LEVANT. 123represents the interior of a cavern, on the righthand side of which is a small figure of Pan seatedin a niche in the rock, and playing on the syrinx.Below him is an altar, before which Hermes andthree nymphs are dancing.53The sculpture of this relief appears to be of agood period of art, executed with a boldness andfreedom which approaches to carelessness . Someof the hands and arms of the figures are broken off,but the sculpture is otherwise in good condition .M. Sitrides has in his possession a spoon, which Irecognized as a relic from the curious collectionof silver objects found at Lampsacus some yearsago, and of which a portion is now in the BritishMuseum. These objects consist of spoons andother implements, which the inscriptions and markson them show to have been originally used in aPagan temple, and to have been afterwards reconsecrated and adapted for Christian worship. On one ofthese spoons in the British Museum is inscribed thesaying of Solon, τέρμα δ' ὁρᾶν βιότοιο; on another thesaying of Bias of Priene. The spoon in the possession of M. Sitrides had on the inside of the bowl: -ΟΣΔΕΚΟΡΙΝΘΟΝΕΝΑΙΕΘΥΜΟΥΚΡΑΤΕOn one side of the handle ΣΙΝΠΕΡΙΑΝΔΡΟΣ,on the other side OTANMIC.ICEHØIAHCOY.Ος δὲ Κόρινθον ἔναιε, θυμοῦ κρατέειν Περίανδρος ὅτανμισ[ ε]ῖ σε ἡ φίλη σου. The saying θυμοῦ κρατεῖν, hereascribed to Periander, is elsewhere given to Cheilon.554With this collection of spoons was found a necklace composed of portions of gold chain, alternating124 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwith rows of pearls and other precious stones,linked together with hooks and eyes, which is alsoin the possession of M. Sitrides. He also showedme a brooch found in a tomb, formed of two hollowcylinders of gold, plaited into a loop, terminating ateither end in two lions' heads. In the centre of theloop is a mask of Medusa, in a lozenge-shaped setting this appears to be Greek.In the town I found an inscription, partly inEpic, and partly in Iambic verse, on the drum of acolumn set upright in the ground at the door ofa mosque.55 The Turks had carefully placed thecolumn upside down. Piloted by the dragoman ofthe consular agent, I attempted to alter its position;but the first stroke of the pickaxe into the groundbrought forth a fanatic in a green turban, whostamped and raged at us with all manner of maledictions; so I was forced to copy the inscriptionwith my head between my knees, reading everyletter upside down. I remained in this uncomfortable position for three days, during the greaterpart of which time I was surrounded by a dirtyrabble, who were only kept in check by the presenceof a cavass from the Pasha. It is said that, someyears ago, a statue was found here representingthe ancient city, Kallipolis, with an inscription tothat effect, and that the Turks have walled it upin one of their fountains as the people in the MiddleAges used to wall up naughty nuns.The weather was too inclement for excursionsin the Chersonese, as I had intended, so we wenton to the Dardanelles, where we were hospitablyIN THE LEVANT. 125received by Mr. James Calvert, the acting Consul,and his brother Frank.We took up our quarters in their country-houseat Renköi, a village distant about three hours southof the Dardanelles, and very near the sea- coast. Thishouse was built by Mr. Lander, the uncle of thepresent Consul. Here I found a few stray relics ofEuropean civilization; such as a grim picture ofSir Thomas Maitland, flanked by two family portraitsof beauties of George III.'s time, a pianoforte, abagatelle-table, some of the new books publishedlast year in England, and various other little luxuriesunknown to Mytilene.The Calverts carry on a considerable trade in vallonia. The vallonia oak (Quercus Egilops) covers avery large district in the Troad, and is cultivated forthe sake of the cup of the acorn, which is much usedin preparing and dyeing leather in England. Theacorns themselves are given to the pigs; but thereare such quantities that they are even burnt as fuel.The Calverts have two farms, or chifliks, where theyhave introduced two or three English ploughs . Thewooden implement of the Turkish peasant has beenscratching the back of Asia Minor for many centuries, without ever disturbing the rich subsoil. TheTroad has been a most neglected and wild region forages; but the Greeks are beginning now to cultivateit . They are gaining ground, as they do in mostplaces along the coasts of Asia Minor, and the Turksare gradually giving way before them, abandoningtheir estates for want of energy and of means to cultivate them.126 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe country between the Dardanelles and Troyis covered with brushwood, without a village, andscarcely any cultivated land. Nothing breaks themonotony of the horizon but the vast tumuli whichappear at intervals against the sky, marking thegrave of some Homeric hero. In travelling throughthis country, we saw but few human beings. Instead of the paved roads of Mytilene thronged withfat and greasy citizens riding home on their mules,and with all manner of traffic between the populousvillages, the roads in the plain of Troy have longstrings of camels on their way to some far country,and an occasional horseman armed to the teeth.These are all the traces of humanity visible, exceptthe Sclavonian herdsman, who, with pistols in hisbelt and accompanied by dogs more savage thanhimself, tends his vast flocks of sheep and goats;for now, as in the time of Horace, -Priami Paridisque bustoInsultat armentum.We made an expedition to the site of Troy, nearwhich we passed the night in a chiflik, or farmhouse, of the Calverts. Thence, we rode to Bounarbashi, and examined the rocky hill encircled bythe Mendere, which Chevalier claims as the site ofTroy. If this hill has ever been an acropolis ,we might expect to find those fragments of veryearly pottery which, as was first remarked by thelate Mr. Burgon, are so abundant on the Homericsites of Mycena and Tiryns.56 Of such potteryI saw not a vestige in the soil, nor could I dis-IN THE LEVANT. 127cover anywhere on the surface of the rock thoselevel beds cut to receive the foundations of thewalls, which may be generally traced out on thesites of the early Greek citadels, and the marks ofwhich are as imperishable as the rock in which theyare cut.57After leaving Bournabashi, we went south to Chimenlai, a small village marked in the Admiraltychart No. 1608, where we were most kindly andhospitably entertained by a Turkish lady whosehusband sells vallonia to the Calverts . It was thefirst time I had ever lodged in a Turkish house.Everything was excessively clean and comfortable.We were waited upon by a gentleman in the blacklivery which nature gave him. Turkish servants,more especially negroes, are good waiters, fromthe ease and noiselessness of their movements.Notwithstanding the superior wealth of Europeansin the Levant, they are not so well served as theTurks, because no one but a Greek or Latin Christianwill condescend to be their menial. In the morning,the lady of the house, who had been invisible till themoment of our parting, appeared at the window, andthrowing back her veil, expressed her great regretthat we could not stay another day. Such a wantof reserve is very unusual and utterly forbidden bythe general laws of Turkish etiquette; but the ladywas neither young nor pretty, and the Calverts arefriends of the family, and buy their vallonia; and sowe were treated as enfants de la maison.The mosque in this village is built of large squaredblocks, evidently from some ancient building. At128 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthis mosque was a Latin inscription containing adedication to the Emperor Claudius, as a " SodalisAugustalis." On the lintel of a window was the fragment of another Latin inscription, containing part ofthe name and titles of Nero.58 Infront of the mosquewas the capital of a large Doric column and a plainmarble chair.We rode on, the next morning, to a village calledKoushibashi in the mountains, half an hour south ofChimenlai and about three hours east of AlexandriaTroas. Near this are seven immense granite columns,lying just as they were left rough-hewn in the quarry,from which they have been cut as neatly as if theirmaterial was cheese or soap. They vary from 37 to38 feet in length, and are about 5 feet 6 inches intheir greatest diameter. They appear to be Roman,and to have been left rough-hewn to be conveyed tosome distant temple, and then polished . This accounts for their not being all exactly the same length.The quarry from which they were taken lies to thenorth-east of the row. The marks of the chiselremain on the vertical face of the granite in parallelhorizontal grooves.On the road from this quarry to Alexandria Troasis another of these columns, abandoned on its way tothe sea. There is something very grand in the aspectof these seven sleepers lying so silently on thegranite bed out of which they were hewn.To the south of Koushibashi, our road began toascend through a rocky and barren district, till wereached Chigri, a most curious acropolis crowning amountain, which, according to the Admiralty chart,IN THE LEVANT. 129is 1,648 feet above the sea. It is about two hourssouth of the village of Koushibashi, and is laid downin the Admiralty chart, but has, I think, been verylittle noticed by travellers . The walls, built ofblocks of granite in polygonal courses, are nearlyperfect all round. The fortress is of a rhomboidalform, and may be compared to a kite. Its greatestlength is from S.E. to N.W. It took us twentyminutes to walk right through it lengthways, sothat it is more than a mile long. It has a number ofgates flanked by towers.TheTheOn the N.E. side is a gateway which seems tohave been rather more accessible than the others,and to which an ancient causeway still leads. Thisgateway is 16 feet wide. The doorway stands backabout 7 feet 7 inches behind the gateway.jambs of this doorway are still in position.width between them is 9 feet . One of them has adeep horizontal groove for the bolt. This gatewayis flanked on one side by a tower, on the other byan abutment. Within the walls are traces of foundations of many houses. A spring still flows withinthe ruins, and there is an old well filled up.The extent and the preservation of the defencesmake this fortress a most interesting exampleof early military architecture, the work probably ofHellenic settlers . The walls terminate in naturalprecipices at either end, and great judgment has beenshown in taking advantage of every natural barrierto add to the strength of the fortifications. Thus theprecipices at either end are surmounted by vastmasses of rock which rise far above the walls, andK130 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmust have served the purpose of watch-towers forthe garrison.Leake and other travellers have supposed Chigrito be the Cenchrea of Stephanus Byzantius.The mountains round this place have rather a badreputation for robbers; and it was here that CaptainSpratt, R.N., while engaged with a brother officerin making the Hydrographical Survey, was surprisedby three armed ruffians, from whom, by great presence of mind, however, he succeeded in escaping.From Chigri we went to Alexandria Troas, passingby a place called Lisgyar, where are hot springs.Here are ruins of some baths built of groutedmasonry, and probably of the late Roman period. Asmall bronze mouse, now in the collection of Mr.Frank Calvert, was found here. From the nearnessof this spot to the Sminthium, the seat of the worshipof Apollo Sminthius, there can hardly be a doubtthat this mouse was dedicated to that deity, whoon a coin of Alexandria Troas is represented holdinga mouse in his hand. This place is marked onthe Admiralty chart, No. 1608, " Hot Springs,"but without a name. Poco*cke notices the spot,and says that the baths are sulphuric. Here hesaw a colossal draped female figure in white marble,the head broken off.59On our arrival at Alexandria Troas, the weatherwas so bad that we did not dismount, and could onlytake a passing glance at the stately Roman remains.I could hear of no inscriptions or sculpture here.The principal ruin is a large edifice with manyarches, in a very noble style. It is built of largeIN THE LEVANT. 131blocks of isodomous masonry. Chandler considersthis a Gymnasium.The marble has been carried away from this siteby travellers, or by peasants from the neighbouringvillages, and nothing is left but the solid Romanmasonry, the shell of the buildings. Near it wesaw a subterraneous vaulted passage, which, fromits curved form, must have passed under theseats of an amphitheatre. Towards the sea theshore is strewn with the ruins of houses for abouta mile.We passed northward through the ruins in thedirection of Gaikli; and on getting beyond the precincts of the walls, came upon many sarcophagiwhich must have been placed on each side of theancient road.On our way home from Alexandria Troas, wehalted at Kalifatli, near the Mendere. Here hasbeen recently discovered a coarse tesselated pavement, with the usual common patterns . As wepassed, we found the Greek villagers cutting it upinto squares to pave their church with, as if it hadbeen so much oilcloth. For several acres round thisspot the ground is strewn with fragments of marbleand of coarse Roman pottery. East of the pavement are traces of walls with foundations of groutedrubble.One of these walls runs for a length of 60 paces,with another at right angles to it, 50 feet in length.Three or four large squared blocks were lying on thesurface of the ground, near these walls. North ofthe pavement is a small mound, the top of whichK 2132 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESforms a level area; its north side is a steep bankrunning down to the plain below. Here fragmentsof black Hellenic pottery are found.From Kalifatli we proceeded to the site of IliumNovum, where the remains visible above ground arevery trifling; though the irregularities of the groundled me to suppose that extensive ruins were hidden.under the soil. Thence we returned to Renköiby Halil Eli, where I copied some inscriptions.After our return to Renköi, I visited a placeabout half a mile to the N.N.E. of that village, andthought by Mr. Calvert to be the site of the ancientOphrynium. This site, now called It Ghelmez,may be described as a platform bounded by deepravines, which surround it on the land side, excepton the east, where a narrow isthmus connectsit with higher ground above. On the S.W. sideof the platform, Mr. Calvert found a quantity ofpipes of thick red pottery in the steep bank of theravine. They appear to have been anciently laiddown as a watercourse. Upon the surface of theplatform are foundations of walls, pieces of marble,and fragments of pottery. Two copper coins ofNeandria and one of Ilium have been found here.To the S.E. of this platform the ground on theother side of the ravine rises in a series of terracespartially covered with pine. Above these terracesis a sloping platform, on the surface of which aremany fragments of Hellenic pottery. On thisupper platform the foundation of a wall may betraced 107 feet from N.W. to S.E., when it makesa turn, and runs 146 feet in an E.S.E. direction.IN THE LEVANT. 133This is built of a casing of travertine blocks , filledin with rubble. Here have been found, at differentperiods, fourteen coins of Ophrynium, two of Sigeum,three of Ilium Novum, and a fine silver coin ofMegiste (Castel Rosso) , a small island near Rhodes.It is singular how this last coin, which is of greatrarity, could have found its way to a spot so distantfrom its place of mintage. The form of the groundon this slope seems to have been much altered bylandslips, which occur frequently on the sides of thedeep ravines. On the shore below these platformsare remains of an ancient mole.It is evident that a Greek city must have occupiedthis site the situation corresponds with that ofOphrynium, as described by Strabo; and the findingof so large a number of coins of this city on theplatform renders this all the more probable."Continuing to explore the shore southward fromRenköi, I noticed at a fountain distant about fiftyminutes from that place fragments of red potteryand building-stones.The headland, which stands a little in advance ofthesupposed site of the ancient Rhæteum, must haveserved as an Hellenic burial-ground; for on examining the side of the cliff about 8 feet below the surfaceof the ground, a vein may be traced which containsfragments of small vases, pieces of bone, and cinerary remains. It appears that the dead here wereinterred in large jars of coarse red earthenware.On the surface of the field above are many fragmentsof pottery. The ground swells out gradually fromthe middle of the field towards the edge of the134 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScliff, and from its form suggests the probability thata tumulus, since levelled, once stood here.At the distance of an hour to S.W. of Renköi,and within a few minutes' walk of the sea, are theruins of an old Byzantine church, called AgiosAthanasi. The foundations of this church are 66 feetin length by 57 feet in breadth . Among the ruinsare fragments of columns and capitals of the Romanperiod. Coins of Sigeum have been found here.Near the confluence of the small river Kemarwith the Mendere, at the distance of five hours tothe south of the Dardanelles, is a chiflik, or farm, ofthe Calverts, situated at the village of Atshik-koi.Here are two ancient tumuli, marked in the Admiraltychart as Herman Tepe and Khani Tepe. Duringour visit to Renköi, Mr. Frank Calvert drove a gallery and shaft through Khani Tepe. Nothing wasfound in the interior except a layer of ashes nearthe bottom, but the excavation was not carried lowenough to obtain a conclusive result; for it is wellknown that the most important remains have beenfound in Greek tumuli below their apparent base.61Between these two tumuli is a spot on the banksof the river Kemar, which, on examination, provedto be an Hellenic cemetery. I was present at anexcavation made here by Mr. Calvert. The dead werehere buried in large crocks or jars of coarse redpottery. These jars were called by the ancientspithoi. It was in such a pithos, and not, as isvulgarly supposed, in a tub, that Diogenes dwelt.Jars similar in shape and scale are used by theGreeks at the present day to hold water. They areIN THE LEVANT. 135sunk in the ground up to the mouth, at the door oftheir houses, and are called cupas, which seems tobe a corruption of the Arabic koub, a vault. Inour excavation, the pithoi were found only a fewinches below the surface, the plough having workeddown nearly to their level. They varied in size,the largest being about 4 feet 6 inches in height.We found them lying on their sides, the mouthgenerally looking to the south- east.The mouth of each pithos was closed by a flatstone. Each contained one or more skeletons,doubled up, and in several were painted vases. Onejar contained eight small vases mixed with the bones.62The figures painted on some of the vases were inblack on a red ground; others red, on a blackground: all seemed of a very late period.68The pithoi have been anciently mended withleaden rivets, numbers of which were found amongthe bones. Some of these were nearly a foot long.Immediately below these jars we came to thenative rock of the field, a proof that no earlierinterments had taken place in this cemetery. "64I took advantage of a little leisure at Renköi toread the Iliad over again in the presence of thegreat natural features of the scene. No one whohas not seen the magnificent outline which boundsthe horizon of the plain of Troy can bring home tohis mind the stirring and marvellous narrative ofthe poet as Homer meant it to affect his readers orrather hearers. We supply the scenery of the Iliadfrom our imagination, or, rather, we do not supplyit at all; we do not think of the Homeric landscape,136 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESon which the Homeric battle-scenes were relieved.The background is blank, like the plane surface onwhich a Greek frieze was relieved. But to theaudience of Homer the names of the rivers and mountains in the poem recalled an actual landscape; andall through the ancient poets there is a Greek landscape implied rather than described, of which theuntravelled scholar can form no conception.While we were at the Dardanelles, I observed acurious trait of Greek manners. The agent of theCalverts had lost 40,000 piasters by a robbery inhis house. The robbery was traced home to thepeople of this village, and after some days the priestof the place declared in church that he had a charmwhich would infallibly discover the thief.Thischarm is the leg-bone of a wolf, which, if boiledin milk with a ploughshare, and then burnt, hasthe extraordinary property of rendering the thieflame the moment the bone is put in the fire,one of the legs of the thief is forthwith paralyzed.The priest announced this in the morning, addingthat he would not burn the wolf's bone till thenext day. That same night the whole of thestolen property was thrown into the garden of itsrightful owner in a bag, and so the thief did notincur the punishment prepared for him. I suspectthat behind this exhibition of priestcraft there wasa more real and tangible threat on the part of thePasha of the Dardanelles, that he would make thevillage responsible for the amount stolen; and sothe priest, now as ever, was made the instrument ofthe Government.IN THE LEVANT. 137XII.RHODES, April 4, 1853.HisHAVING been requested by Mr. Kerr, H.M.'s Consul at Rhodes, to act in his place during his absencein England, I left Blunt in charge of Mytilene, andcame here by the Austrian steamer a few days ago.On arriving, I found Mr. Kerr as eager to leaveRhodes as I was to visit an island which promisedso rich a field of archæological research.impatience was not unnatural, for he has nowvegetated at Cyprus and Rhodes for twelve longyears without ever asking for a furlough, andhis mind, naturally an active one, is weary of thepetty intrigues and cabals which constitute the veryessence of Levantine society in small places, andwhich a Consul can hardly keep clear of withoutextreme discretion and forbearance.After the rough life we have been leading atMytilene, I was not sorry to instal myself in a houseto which the residence of an English family hasimparted an air of comfort, such as our bachelorménage at Mytilene never attained to. Instead ofbeing dependent on the tender mercies of my dragoman for daily food, I find myself waited on by threeservants who have been taught to minister to Britishways and wants under the careful training of Mrs.Kerr, and one of whom actually speaks brokenEnglish, and knows how to lay the cloth for dinner.138 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESJudging from first impressions, I should imagineRhodes to be a much more agreeable residence foran Englishman than Mytilene. Here there is a realFrank quarter, where you hear as much French andItalian spoken in the streets as Greek; there is tooin the manners of the people generally a tinge ofEuropean civilization which I have seen nowhereelse in the Archipelago.From the circ*mstance that the trade of Rhodes isprincipally in the hands of Frank merchants, andthat this beautiful island has always been a favouriteplace of residence for French, Italians , Maltese, andother emigrants from Europe, Latin Christianity hasan ascendancy here which would not be allowed inislands like Mytilene, where the Greeks discourageas much as possible all foreign settlers, especiallythose of the Romish faith.In everyAt this season Rhodes is arrayed in all the freshness of luxuriant spring. The scenery round thetown has a peculiar beauty. The land is formed ina succession of natural terraces down to the sea; inevery view the palm-tree is seen against the horizon,reminding the Englishman in what latitude he is,which otherwise might be forgotten, from the extraordinary mildness of the temperature.direction I find long and silent lanes, stretchingaway for miles through the suburbs between highgarden-walls, from the top of which ivy and othershrubs hang over in rich profusion. The air isscented with orange-flowers, the earth is coveredwith abundant crops. The houses are all built ofsquared stone, with flat roofs. Many of them haveIN THE LEVANT. 139a strange tenantless aspect; for Rhodes is a placewhich has been long wasting away with that atrophywhich is consuming the Ottoman empire. The townis far too large for its inhabitants, who are huddledaway into holes and corners. About a year ago anearthquake threw down one of the fine old towers.Its ruins fell in one of the principal streets, blockingit up. Not a stone has been touched by the Turks,and the ruins may perhaps lie there till anotherearthquake shakes them up again.After having been jostled by the throng of mulesand market-people in the long, crooked, miry streetsof Mytilene, it is pleasant to walk in a place wherefor miles you meet nothing but a stray donkey,where no sound is heard but the echo of your ownfootsteps on a pavement of pebbles, the most beautifully clean that I ever trod on. All the courtyards and many of the streets in the Frank quarterare paved with round shingle- stones from the beach,in many places worked in very neat patterns, whichwe might well imitate in England.I delight in the distant views, which are on amuch grander scale than those of Mytilene. Lookingat the map, you will see that the opposite shoresof Lycia and Caria are much broken by baysand headlands, which form a magnificent jaggedsky-line, sweeping round in a kind of panoramatowards the south, where the vast forms of snowcapped mountains come into view. The sea isperpetually agitated, sometimes by tremendousgales, and has not that look of molten metalwhich it has generally in the Archipelago. The140 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESonly signs here of human activity are the windmills, which revolve eternally before my windows.They stand in a long row by the sea- shore, andthe effect of a sunset seen through their gaunt andskeleton-like arms is most picturesque.Ever since my arrival I have been engaged in avariety of consular affairs, which, though often wearisome in detail, are not without interest, because theminute study of such local matters gives an insightinto the state of society in this part of the Archipelago.The other day I witnessed a singular scene, veryCorsican in character. A native of the island ofCassos had been condemned to death for a murdercommitted two years ago in Alexandria. The trialtook place here; there was good reason for believingthat the real murderer had been let off and the wrongone convicted; so the case was reported to Constantinople, and there were hopes of a reprieve throughthe intervention of Colonel Rose with the Porte.While the case was pending, the eldest son of theGreek who had been assassinated, thirsting for vengeance, went up to Constantinople and obtained afirman ordering the immediate execution of thecriminal. He arrived with the fatal warrant andpresented it to the Caimakam, who is now actinghere as Governor in the absence of the Pasha ofRhodes.The hopes which we had entertained weregone; but in concert with the Greek and RussianVice-Consuls, I tried to persuade the Caimakaminto a few days' delay. Now the Caimakam wasIN THE LEVANT. 141a fat stuffy little man, a sort of Turkish alderman; very good-natured, fussy, and nervous, veryanxious to oblige the English Consul, very muchafraid of all responsibility; so he referred the matterto the Mejlis or municipal council; and to the MejlisI went. As I have mentioned in a former letter, aConsul only goes to this council on great occasions.In ordinary matters he sends his dragoman, for fearthat the Turks, by constantly holding intercoursewith him, should discover that he is but a mere mortallike themselves, and so take to despising him. I foundthere present the whole family of the murdered man.This is the usual custom, according to Turkish law.When the firman, or death- warrant, has arrived fromConstantinople, it is still invalid without the solemnassent of each member of the family of the murderedman, declared before the Governor and Mejlis; andeven after this , at the place of execution, all themembers of the family are asked once more if theygive their consent; and any one of them can still pardon the condemned by dissenting from the rest . Thefamily who appeared on this occasion before thecourt stood in a line at the end of the room, likea row of masked and muffled figures on the ancientGreek stage. They consisted of the old mother ofthe murdered man, his widow, a daughter and son,both grownup, and two younger children. They wereall in deep mourning; the women wore black veilsovershadowing their foreheads, and looked like theavenging furies who pursued Orestes. Each wasasked in turn what their wish was, and each inturn uttered the fatal word alua, " blood. " I never142 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESshall forget the savage expression with which thisdeclaration was made.The widow stepped forward into the middle of thecourt, and said, raising her fiendish arms, " I wish tolick his blood from the executioner's knife." A littleboy, not fourteen years old, glared at me with eyesgleaming like those of a tiger's cub. We had entertained some hopes that the old mother would haverelented; and a humane Turk, one of the members ofthe Mejlis, asked her whether she would not forgive,as she hoped God would forgive her; but it was allin vain. It is said that the widow carried a brace ofpistols in her bosom, and threatened to shoot any ofthe family who showed symptoms of relenting. I sawthere was no more to be done, so I turned to the Caimakam, and said, " Ifthis man is executed to-day, andthere afterwards comes a counter- order from Constantinople, I regard you as responsible for all theconsequences; on your head be it. "I had no verydistinct idea what consequences there could be, butfelt it necessary, in a case of life and death like this,to say something.A mysterious threat always tells with the Turksmore than a definite one, and the Caimakamtrembled like Felix. I got up and left the Mejlis,and then arose an old grey-bearded Mussulman, theCapouji Bashi of Rhodes, whose position is, to acertain extent, independent of that of the Governor,and said, " Caimakam, I wash my hands of thismatter; if you choose to disobey the firman, take theconsequences yourself." So the poor Caimakam,finding himself deserted by the Mejlis, gave way,IN THE LEVANT. 143and decided on risking nothing for the chance ofsaving an innocent man. The Mejlis broke up.The family of avengers stood on the quay, theusual place of execution at Rhodes, waiting impatiently for the condemned man to appear. TheCavass Bashi, or chief of the police, calmed their impatience by telling them that an executioner couldnot be found. The fact was that the Turks wereafraid of a rescue. There was a ship in the harbourfull of Cassiotes, countrymen of the condemned, andthe sympathies of the whole Greek population ofRhodes were roused. So the Turks, having quietedthe friends of the condemned by saying that therewas a reprieve for three days, and appeased thefamily by the excuse of not being able to find anexecutioner, proceeded to double the guards of thekonak, and to get the guns of a ship of war in theharbour ready to fire on the quay,if necessary.Then at sunset, locking the town gates a littlesooner than usual to prevent any great crowd, theycalled in the family, who rushed to the place of execution with savage joy, shut out the sympathizingcrowd, and finished what we call in England the lastact of the law-I am afraid that in Turkey suchexecutions are sometimes but legalized murders."I had been out walking to enjoy the glorioussunset, congratulating myself with the faint hopethat our exertions had obtained a few days' reprieve,when I met a great crowd coming from the town.In the centre was a woman with a flushed cheek andfierce eye, beating her naked bosom with alternatehand, and in regular time, the action reminding me144 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESat once ofthe planctus of the ancients . It was thesister of the unhappy man who had just been executed . Her eyes had no tears; she was thinking ofa future vendetta, when her turn would come.The next day the Greek ships in the harbourlowered their colours half-mast high. A long procession of all the principal Greeks in Rhodes attendedthe funeral of the unhappy man, who I really believewas sacrificed to some vile family feud; and afterthe funeral I had a visit from the chief mourner,Mr. Leonidas Sakelarides. The mention ofhis nameobliges me to give a sketch of a long previous history,in which this execution is only one act. Some threeyears ago, an Austrian vessel was wrecked off thelittle island of Cassos. The Cassiotes are enterprising mariners, who combine the professions of traderand pirate in a way more profitable to themselvesthan pleasant to their neighbours. The captain ofthe Austrian vessel went on shore, little knowingthat he had entered into a den of thieves. He drewup the usual protest, or declaration of the shipwreck,before the only local authority he could find in theisland, a Greek council of primates.The captain unluckily knew no Greek. The secretary of the Council being the only person in the placewho knew Italian, pretended to take down thecaptain's protest in Greek, writing all the time afalse declaration to the effect that all the cargo waslost at sea. This false protest the captain unknowingly signed. Then the Cassiotes, thinkingthemselves secure, plundered the vessel and appropriated all the cargo. But the ship having beenIN THE LEVANT. 145insured at Malta, in due course the fraud wasdiscovered by the underwriters, and satisfactiondemanded from the Turkish Government. Mr. Leonidas, the chief mourner, is a young Cassiote whowas educated at Athens, where he acquired notionsof a civilization unknown to his pirate countrymen.He denounced the persons who had plundered theship, and through his means the facts were provedagainst them. In revenge they burnt his houseand his young sister alive in it, and attempted hisown life; so that now he lives at Rhodes, beingafraid to go to Cassos.Now the fray in Alexandria, in which one Greekwas killed, and in consequence of which anotherwas executed, arose out of the long- standing Cassiotefeud between Leonidas and the pirates whom hedenounced. If this feud had never been, the manwould never have been killed, nor his supposedmurderer executed. Leonidas, a near relation ofthe man executed, tried to save his life by makinga sort of compromise with other accused parties inCassos. Failing in this, he now takes his turn inexacting vengeance; and on the day after theexecution, he appeared at the Mejlis, and denounced the widow who had shown such bloodthirstiness, as one of the persons who had burnthis house and sister. The answer which thewidow gave to this charge in my presence wasvery characteristic . "I thought," she said, " thatit was always lawful to burn the house of anenemy."I foresee that Cassos fromthis day forth will beL146 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdivided by a deadly feud, which will last perhapseven longer than the Turkish empire.This little island now contains two parties, eachsolemnly pledged to destroy each other's life andproperty, the party of Leonidas, who seems tohave a courage worthy of Thermopylæ, and theparty of the pirates, who are quite prepared to burnhim alive.XIII.RHODES, April 28, 1853.WHEN landing at Rhodes, we behold for the firsttime the fortress which so long formed the impregnable outwork of Latin Christianity in the East, andwhich, though shattered by cannon and earthquakes,still presents to us one of the noblest and mostinstructive specimens of military architecture in thefifteenth century: when walking round its walls , werecognize on every bastion and tower, the namesand escutcheons of Grand Masters famous in theannals of its two sieges; when, after winding ourway through gateways, still defended by drawbridgeand portcullis, we find ourselves in that long andlonely street, where the auberges of the Knightsstand side by side, still wearing on their richlysculptured fronts the proud insignia of the Order, theheart would indeed be dead to human sympathieswhich could remain unmoved in the presence ofthese time-honoured monuments of Christian valour.So absorbing indeed is the charm of this firstIN THE LEVANT. 147impression, so completely does it fill our imaginations, that we forget for awhile the interest whichbelongs to Rhodes as the site of one of the greatmaritime republics of the ancient world, a city celebrated not less for the wisdom of its institutions thanfor the beauty of its architecture, the perfection ofits ports and arsenals, and the strength of its defences by sea and land.Founded B.C. 408, and laid out by the samegreat architect, Hippodamos, who built the Piræus,Rhodes was probably one of the earliest of theHellenic cities of which the plan was designed byone master mind.Hence that symmetry in the arrangement of thecity which the rhetorician Aristides, writing in thesecond century A.D., describes in a well-knownpassage. Rhodes, he says, was built in the form ofan amphitheatre; the temples and public buildingswere grouped together so as to form one composition,of which the several parts balanced each other as inthe design of a single edifice.The whole was encompassed by a wall, which,with its stately towers and battlements, he comparesto a crown. The temples and other public buildingswere adorned with celebrated works in painting andsculpture; and, according to Pliny, the city contained no less than 3,000 statues, of which 100 wereof colossal size.65The maritime greatness of Rhodes was due notonly to its geographical position, but also to theconvenience of its harbours and to the perfect equipment of the dockyards and arsenal, which, from(1.) L 2148 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESStrabo's description, occupied a large space in relation to the rest of the city, and, like those of Carthageand Halicarnassus, were probably screened fromobservation by high walls and roofs . Any curiousinterloper found within these forbidden precincts atRhodes or at Carthage was liable to the punishmentof death.Aristides, in describing the harbours, speciallypraises their convenience in reference to the prevailing winds. They are so disposed, he says, as if forthe express purpose of receiving the ships of Ionia,Caria, Cyprus, and Egypt. Towering above theseharbours stood the famous bronze Colossus , which ,from its position on the shore, was probably intendedto serve as a sea-mark and a lighthouse. So vasta surface of polished metal reflecting the bright skyof Rhodes, must have been visible from a greatdistance at sea, and must have been to the Rhodianmariner an object as familiar as the statue ofAthene Promachos was to those who sailed past theAttic Sunium.Such was the character of Rhodes as far as canbe gathered from the scanty notices in ancientauthors. Vague and incomplete as these noticesare, they suggest to us an idea of the ancient cityfar more definite than can be obtained by a visit toits site, of which the main features are so obliterated that the few vestiges which remain can onlybe detected after long study.It will be convenient, before putting togetherthese scanty remains of ancient Rhodes, to give ashort description of the city built by the Knights,

рррррKumburnu Point Molino orWindmillsAnetFoundations LazzarettoPORTS AND TOWNOFRHODESReduced from Admiralty Chart Nº1637O 50 100 200 300Plate .4400 500 FATHOMSDay &Lath Son tmeshe

VIEW RHODES OFTHEVRLOOKING HARBOURPlate 5IN THE LEVANT. 149as certain points in the topography can then befixed for reference. (See the Plan, Plate 4.)The present harbours of Rhodes seem to havebeen originally mere indentations in the line of thecoast, subsequently improved by Hellenic art.The entrance to the principal harbour is flankedon the west by the tall square tower now called theArab tower, and on the east by a long mole runningnearly north, and terminating in the tower of St.Angelo. (Plate 5.)To the west lies a smaller harbour, now called bythe Greeks Mandraki, or the sheep-fold, from itssecurity. This smaller harbour doubtless contained in antiquity the triremes and other shipsof war; the larger harbour being then, as now,the receptacle for merchant- ships. The easternside of Port Mandraki is formed by a massiveHellenic mole running parallel to the eastern sideof the larger harbour, and defended at its extremityby the tower of St. Nicholas, which now servesas a lighthouse. Its entrance is protected fromthe north wind by a small rocky promontory, onwhich the Lazaretto now stands. To the east ofthe great harbour is a third natural indentation,which does not appear to have been used as a regular port in antiquity, though on the ridge of therocks which bounds it are the remains of an Hellenicmole. This was probably intended to serve as abreak-water in aid of the mole on the eastern sideof the harbour. The town is built round the greatharbour, following its curve, so that the area whichit occupies may be compared to an irregular cres-150 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScent. The fortifications with which it is encircled,both by sea and land, extend from the round toweron the eastern side of the entrance to the greatharbour to the tower of St. Nicholas, at the mouthof Port Mandraki.On the land side the town is defended by a wallof circumvallation, and a fosse cut out of the nativerock, which, being easily quarried, affords the samefacilities for making fortifications which the Knightsafterwards found at Malta. The fosse is from 40 to60 feet deep, and in width from 90 to 140 feet. Theescarp and counterscarp are built of squared stones.of moderate size, which were probably quarried outon the spot. In some places the fosse is doubled .The terreplein of the walls is 40 feet wide. Herestill remain many of the fine old brass guns of theKnights, on which the fleur-de-lis, the basilisk ofFrancis I., and other heraldic badges, may be recognized. The vents are protected from the weatherby old cuirasses taken out of the armoury of theKnights. Everywhere the immense stone balls lieabout the ramparts. Many of these have been usedto repair the breaches in the walls. In the towers,bastions, and other works by which these lines arestrengthened in various places, the military engineermay trace the first germs of that science of fortification which has been developed pari passu withthe improvement in artillery, and which in thefifteenth century seems to have been more advancedin the Levant than in Europe.All round the great harbour the town is defendedby a wall with square towers at intervals: this wall is

Botroghe PhotoyRHODES. D'AMBOISE CATELondon ubished by a Sen 1 to the Quer ( LIMITEDPlate 6W.Sevire

RHODES DAME 01SF FOSSE NEAR CATEIN THE LEVANT. 151entered by the gate of St. Catherine, now called theBazaar gate. An inner wall, commencing from thisgate, runs across the interior of the town from eastto west, and after throwing out an angle to thenorth, joins the main line of circumvallation abouthalfway between the Amboise gate and the gate ofSt. George. The area on the north, enclosed between the inner wall and the outer lines, is calledin the old chronicles the upper town, or Castello,and contained the palace of the Grand Master, theauberges or lodges of the different langues of theOrder, and the churches of St. John the Baptist andSt. Catherine. In this upper town or Castellodwelt the Grand Master and the Knights; the lowertown was inhabited by a mixed population of Jewsand Greeks. In the north-west angle ofthe Castellois the palace of the Grand Master, which, as itoccupies the highest ground within the fortress,was naturally chosen by the Knights as their citadel.The Castello is entered from the west by a noblegateway (Plate 6) , commenced by the Grand MasterD'Aubusson after a great earthquake, and finishedby his successor D'Amboise, from whom this gatetakes its name. Over the door within an ogeeframe is a slab of white marble, on which is sculptured in relief an angel holding the escutcheon ofAmboise, with the inscription, " Amboyse MDXII. "A drawbridge connects this gateway with a stonebridge which here spans the fosse with three arches.(Plate 7.) Over the Amboise gate a head was formerly fixed, which has been thus described to me.It was flat at the top, and pointed like the head of a152 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESserpent, and as large as the head of a lamb. Thishead was certainly on the gate as late as the year1829, and seems to have been taken down when thegate was repaired, some time previous to 1837.66This is , perhaps, the same head which Thevenotsaw, 1657, and which he thus describes:-" Elleétait beaucoup plus grosse et plus large que celled'un cheval, la gueule fendue jusqu'aux oreilles, degrosses dents, les yeux gros, le trou des narines rond,et la peau tirant sur le gris blanc. " According tothe tradition in Thevenot's time, and which has beenpreserved in Rhodes ever since, this was the headof the great serpent slain by Dieudonné de Gozon inthe fourteenth century."67Passing through this gate, a vaulted passage leadsthrough the counterscarp over a second and thirdfosse, which defend the palace of the Grand Masteron the west. After crossing the third fosse, theroad enters the Castello between the church of St.John and the palace of the Grand Master opposite tothe upper end of the street of the Knights. Thisstreet, which runs east and west, divides the Castello into two nearly equal parts.At its western extremity has been a beautifulvaulted building, of which the single remaining archis given in Plate 8.In Rottier's time several of these arches werestanding. On the south of this building is thechurch of St. John the Baptist, which seems to havebeen enlarged and altered by successive GrandMasters, and was probably founded by Foulques deVillaret on the first establishment of the Knights atRate S1RHOLESJ ..AR, N NEAR CHURCH OF

IN THE LEVANT. 153Rhodes. The outside has no architectural feature.Its plan is a rectangular basilica, containing a naveand two aisles , with a clock-tower, the upper part ofwhich was destroyed in the siege. The interior dimensions are 150 feet in length by 52 feet in breadth.The columns dividing the aisles from the nave arechiefly of granite, and are probably taken fromseveral ancient buildings. The roof is of wood, thebeams and ceiling blue, spangled with golden stars.In the pavement of the nave are the remains of thetomb of the Grand Master Fabrizio del Carretto .His effigy, which must have been sculptured in lowrelief on a flat slab, has been destroyed, but theborder of the slab still remains, with an inscriptionat the foot, recording his name, titles , and services,and with the date 1520. At the head of the slab washis escutcheon. Carretto was the last Grand Masterburied at Rhodes. In the pavement the Germantraveller Ross saw a number of other sepulchralslabs with figures of knights in relief dressed in thelong robe of the Order, but too much defaced to beidentified . He also found here a Greek inscriptioncontaining a list of contributions to some public subscription. In the windows was formerly stainedglass, with escutcheons of the Knights, several ofwhich were copied by Rottier. On either side ofthe choir Ross remarked some carved woodworkpainted and gilt, with niches containing small imagesof the Apostles.6968Opposite to the church of St. John is the entranceto the palace of the Grand Master through agateway flanked by two towers facing the south.154 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESOn entering under this gateway, we come to an openspace covered with cisterns, in which the Turks keepstores of grain. In front is a confused mass ofruinous buildings, of which the plan can no longerbe made out. On the left are strong square towersdefending the citadel on the west. On the right astaircase leads to an open gallery communicatingwith many small rooms. In these the garrison probably dwelt. On the north the palace is defended bya tower overlooking a broad and lofty platform,which is raised by solid masonry out of the depth ofthe fosse. It was from the artillery planted on thisplatform that the Turks suffered so much duringthe first siege in their attack on Fort St. Nicholas,from the church of St. Antonio, now a small mosquenear the Lazaretto. Returning from the GrandMaster's palace to the archway already noticed(ante, p. 151) , we look down the long and narrowstreet which is well known to travellers by the nameof Strada dei Cavalieri, or Street of the Knights.In no European city, perhaps, can be found astreet so little changed since the fifteenth century.No Vandal hand has disturbed the perfect reposeand keeping of the scene by demolition or repairs; the very pavement has a medieval look, asif it had known no thoroughfare since its broadmarbles were trodden by Christian warriors threecenturies ago. No sound of near or distant trafficbreaks in on the congenial stillness; we might almostsuppose the houses to be without inhabitants, wereit not for the rude Turkish jalousies which projecton either side, flinging long slanting shadows across

Colnaghi PhotogΠΕΣAURERO!

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FRANAlaiIN THE LEVANT. 155the richly-sculptured façades, and lending mysteryto a solitude only disturbed, when from the gloomof some deep archway a veiled form glides by withaverted face, scared at the unwelcome presence ofthe Frank traveller.About halfway down the street, on the left, asyou descend, is the auberge or lodge of the Frenchlangue (Plate 9) , the façade of which is particularlyrich in heraldic ornament. Over the door are thearms of the Order, and those of Emeri d'Amboise,with the date 1492 , and two other coats . Inthe upper story, within a frame of Gothic leaves,are the arms of France and of D'Aubusson on amarble tablet. Above the French coat are the wordsMontjoie and St. Denis; below, the date, 1495 ,and the words Voluntas Dei est. Near the doorwayis the escutcheon of Villiers de l'Isle Adam, asGrand Prior, with the inscription " Pour Philerme,1511." In another place the same coat, with theinscription " Pour la Maison, 1511 , " and a tabletinscribed " Pour l'Oratoire, 1511." Over a side- doorthe arms of the Order, those of Emeri d'Amboiseand of Villiers de l'Isle Adam, between oriflammes.The façade is crowned with battlements and smallturrets, below which two long fantastic dragons'heads project as gurgoyles. A little higher up anarchway crosses the street, above which is theauberge ofthe Spanish langue.·The arms of England may be seen on anotherhouse. At the bottom of the street is a house withthe escutcheon of the Grand Master, Fabrizio delCarretto, and the date 1519. The style of archi-156 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStecture throughout this street is an interestingmodification of the later Gothic. The escutcheonsare generally set in a richly- sculptured ogee arch.Most of the windows are square- headed, with labelsand upright mullions, while the pointed arch isconstantly employed in the doorways. In the richand fantastic ornaments we recognize the Flamboyant style so generally prevalent in Europe in thefifteenth century; but these ornaments are butsparingly introduced, so as not to disturb the noblesimplicity ofthe general design. In all the edificesbuilt by the Knights at Rhodes we see the same tendency to temper the stern and naked ruggedness ofmilitary masonry as far as possible with rich ornaments, such as we generally find associated withecclesiastical architecture. No fitter symbol couldhave been adopted than this mixed style, to expressthe character of an order at once military andreligious.At the lower end of the Street of the Knights isthe old church of St. Catherine, now a mosque; inthe windows a few coats of arms are still painted.The last building on the south side of the street isthe Hospital of the Knights. This is a large squareedifice, with a very simple external façade. Theentrance is under a kind of vestibule facing the east.The original doors , which were of cypress-woodrichly carved, were given to the Prince de Joinvilleon the occasion of his visit to Rhodes. On eitherside are large vaults now used as warehouses. Theinside is a quadrangle, supported on vaults, abovewhich are open arcades formed of round archesIN THE LEVANT. 157resting on pillars. Adjoining the arcades are fourlong rooms, corresponding with the four sides of thequadrangle. These saloons and the open galleriesare covered with a roof of cypress-wood in veryfine condition. The four rooms were evidently forthe sick, the open galleries for the convalescent towalk in . In one of the vaulted magazines in thebasem*nt, the chain which served to close theentrance to the harbour was formerly kept, and wasseen by Ross in his visit in 1843. He describes itas 750 feet long, each link being 1 foot long.Since his visit it has been removed to Constantinople.The hospital was commenced by Villeneuve, andcompleted by the Grand Master Fluvian, and seemsto have been well planned for its purpose. It nowforms an excellent barrack.In front of its eastern façade is an open spaceleading to the gate of St. Catherine. This gate isdefended by two massive round towers, with deepprojecting machicoulis. Over the gate is a relief inmarble, representing St. Catherine, St. Peter, andSt. Paul; below, the arms of the Order and ofD'Aubusson, and the inscription " ReverendusD. F. Petrus d'Aubussonius Rhodi magnus magisterhanc turrem et portas erexit. " 70The inner wall, running from this gate across thetown to a point south of the Amboise gate, andseparating off the Castello from the lower town, hasbeen already noticed. South of this line are thebazaar and Jews' quarter, and on the west a numberof small tortuous streets inhabited by Turks. Thispart of the town in the fifteenth century was occu-(1.)158 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESpied by the Greeks and Jews, who traded under theprotection of the Knights . Throughout both theCastello and lower town, the streets have the samegeneral character; the houses have flat roofs, andare built of stone throughout. At frequent intervalsbroad arches cross the streets overhead. ( See Plate10.) This mode of building was probably adoptedto facilitate communication from point to point, andafford additional shelter from the fire of the enemyduring a siege. The majority of these houses arecubical in form, and built in the simplest manner,without any architectural feature. Here and therebits of richly- sculptured façades may be met with.On the left of the bazaar is a building which bearsthe traditional name of Castellania, or Palace ofJustice. On the façade are the arms of the GrandMaster D'Amboise, in a rich Gothic frame. Thewindows have lilies sculptured on their mullions andtransoms. This building abuts on the wall whichruns round the shore of the harbour. Near it isanother, to which tradition gives the name " Admiralty." The entrance-door is under a pointed arch.This building is less richly ornamented than theCastellania. Nothing certain is known as to theoriginal purpose of these two edifices .In the Jews' quarter is a house which wasprobably the residence of some wealthy merchant,as it still contains a large room with a richly-carvedceiling. The remains of the church of St. Marc arenear the Admiralty. Rottier gives a number ofcoats of arms copied in this church.The mosque of Suliman, situated a little to theDate10maghe PhotRHODES STREET OF KNIGHTSLondon Published by Day & Son Lt to the Caren

IN THE LEVANT. 159east of the gate of St. George, was probably thechurch of the Apostles. It has a portico of whitemarble columns; on each side of the door is apilaster, on which are richly sculptured in reliefhelmets, battle-axes, and angels' heads betweenfestoons. The design is a beautiful specimen ofRenaissance ornament, and must have been executedat the close of the fifteenth century. The Benedictine and Augustine convents have also beenconverted into mosques.Two gates originally led into the lower town fromthe land side, the gate of St. George, which wasafterwards walled up by the Knights, and the gateof St. John the Baptist, now known as the Koskinogate, on the south. Between these two gates arethe Spanish tower and the tower of St. Mary, whichdefends the south- eastern angle of the fortress .Over the gate of St. John is a relief of the saintsculptured in freestone; below, on a tablet of bluemarble, the arms of the Order and of D'Aubusson,which seem of a later insertion.From this gate the fortifications bend round to thenorth- east, between the Jews' quarter and Jewishcemetery, till they reach the rocky shore, where theyturn nearly due north, running to the commencement of the eastern mole of the harbour, which isprolonged in the same direction. Here the fortifications meet the sea-wall of the harbour nearly at aright angle.The part of the fortifications between this angleand the gate of St. John was twice assailed by theTurks with their whole force, during the siege. On160 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe second assault they succeeded after a tremendous bombardment in mounting the breach, andwere only driven back when D'Aubusson himself atthe head of a chosen band of Knights regained possession of the ramparts and hurled the assailantsback into the fosse. To commemorate this repulsethe brave Grand Master built the chapel of NotreDame de Victoire within the angle of the fortifications at the commencement of the eastern mole,which has been already noticed."¹On this mole stand three windmills, beyondwhich is a battery armed on both sides; and on thepoint of the mole a circular tower, called in laterchronicles the Castle of St. John.72 This mole restson Hellenic foundations. On the opposite side ofthe harbour is the stately tower built by the GrandMaster De Naillac, at the extremity of a molerunning out to the east from the north-eastern angleof the fortress. (Plate 11.)The date of this tower is probably about A.D.1400. It is sometimes called by Bosio the towerof St. Angelo, and by later writers the tower ofSt. Michael, a name for which there seems to beno authority. It consists of three square stories,crowned by a machicolated parapet with overhangingturrets at the four angles, above which rises anoctagonal lantern. Round the outside of this lanterna winding staircase leads to the summit, which commands a most interesting bird's- eye view of thetown and environs of Rhodes. This tower is 150feet high. Under the parapet is the escutcheon ofDe Naillac with that of the Order. In the basem*ntIN THE LEVANT. 161story Ross saw, in 1843, the machine by which inthe time ofthe Knights the great chain was stretchedacross the harbour.The tower is united with the rest of the fortifications by a stone bridge leading to a platform builton the mole, and armed with guns on either side, soas to command a view of both harbours.This platform, which is 21 feet broad and 36 feethigh, joins the main wall of the fortress at itsnorth-eastern angle. At this point a small doorleads from the shore of the main harbour into abattery which commands the mole of St. Nicholas,and thence through another door over a drawbridge,which leads out of the fortress to the Mandrakiharbour. Inside the battery is a small gate in themain wall, now built up, which seems to be the Portadel Castello mentioned in the old chronicles . Herefour lines of fortifications intersect, running nearlyaccording to the cardinal points of the compass.These are, to the south the wall defending theshore of the great harbour; to the east the platformleading to the Naillac tower; to the north the moleof St. Nicholas, and to the west the northern wallof the fortress.The mole of St. Nicholas, which forms the eastern side of Port Mandraki, extends about 1,000feet into the sea. It is in great measure the originalGreek mole, the lower courses built of enormoussquared blocks regularly fitted together. At theextremity stands the castle of St. Nicholas, built bythe Grand Master Raimond Zacosta. Philip theGood, Duke of Burgundy, contributed largely toM162 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe expense of its erection: his arms, with those ofZacosta, and of the Order, are still to be seen on theouter wall next the sea. In the first siege of Rhodesthe Turks made several furious assaults on this fort,bombarding it from the church of St. Antonio, andattempting to storm it by throwing a bridge of boatsacross the harbour of Mandraki. They were repulsed with great slaughter by D'Aubusson. Withinthis fort are casemates, magazines, and the remainsof a chapel; above these is a platform, on which aremany brass guns of the time of the Knights , someof which bear the date 1482, others 1507, with thearms of France and England. This part of the fortseems much in the state in which the Knights left it .From the time of the Grand Master Zacosta thedefence of the fortifications was so arranged thateach langue had its appointed post. The distribution of these posts was as follows: The Germanknights defended all the part between the west sideof the Grand Master's palace and the gate of St.George. The langue d'Auvergne was posted fromthe gate of St. George to the Spanish tower; theEnglish from the Spanish tower to the tower ofSt. Mary, of which they defended the lower story.In the upper story of this tower, and thence as faras the gate of St. John, was the post of Arragon.This gate, with the outwork in front of it, and thewall as far as the Italian tower, were defended bythe Provençal knights: thence, as far as the gate ofSt. Catharine, were posted the Italians .The sea-wall from the gate of St. Catharine tothe Porta del Castello was defended by CastileIN THE LEVANT. 163and Portugal; and thence to the palace of theGrand Masters was the post of the French.The palace itself, as far as the post of the Germans,was guarded by a special body of knights under thecommand of the Grand Master himself.It is curious that in the tower of St. Mary, assigned in both sieges to the English, the marble tombstone of an English knight may yet be seen builtinto the walls. It bears the following inscription:-HIC JACET.FR.THOMASNEWPORT.PODATUS .AGLIE.MILES.QI.OBIIT1502 , XXII . DIE.MESIS-SEPTEMBRIS.CVIVS.ANIMAREQVIESCAT.IN.PACEAMEN1502.73The numerous bronze guns which still remain inthe batteries have been already noticed. Theirrange is said to be about 2,000 yards. They areall honeycombed, and therefore unsafe. Muchpowder from the time of the Knights still remains,stowed away in vast magazines, connected with eachother and with the ramparts by subterraneous galleries. In the upper town is a small armoury, inwhich are preserved helmets, cuirasses, battle-axes,bronze mortars, hand grenades made of a kindof opaque glass, and various other interesting relicsof the Knights.The western and southern sides of the fortificationsare surrounded by two cemeteries; that of the Turksextending from the Amboise gate to beyond the gateM 2164 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESof St. John; whence to the shore is the burial- placeof the Jews, lying immediately outside their quarter.Large Turkish gardens border these cemeteries,beyond which on the south are the suburbs EpanoMaras and Kato Maras (the upper and lower Maras),both inhabited by Greeks. To the north-west of thetown is the suburb Neo Chorio, or Neo Maras, theFrank quarter of Rhodes. Here are the residencesof the consuls and the Roman Catholic church;and a large proportion of the population of thissuburb profess the Latin faith.These suburbs extend to the foot of St. Stephen'shill, which lies along the northern shore overlookingthe town. This hill completely commands thefortifications of Rhodes, and, had the Turks possessed in the 15th century artillery of sufficient rangeto reach the town from such a distance, they wouldof course have made this ground the centre of theiroperations during the siege.When the British fleet was at Marmarice in 1802,Sir Sidney Smith lived in a house on the summit ofthis hill, which has since been known to Englishtravellers as Sir Sidney Smith's hill . It is here thatthe ancient city had its Acropolis.This hill is an irregular plateau, lying nearlyparallel with the seashore, in a direction from N.E.to S.W., and descending on the S.E. and N.E. sidesin a series of terraces to lower ground. The highestpart of the hill is where it overlooks the sea facingthe N.W. On this side it terminates in a brokenline of cliff very steep and inaccessible for the mostpart; below which the road to Trianta, resting on aIN THE LEVANT. 165rocky base, winds along the shore. If we ascendthe N.E. face of St. Stephen's hill from the NeoMaras and follow the edge of the cliff to the S.W.,there will be seen at intervals a bed cut in the rockon which doubtless stood the outer wall of theAcropolis. The continuity of this line of cutting isconstantly interrupted by breaks in the edge of thecliff, large portions of which have been detached byearthquakes at different times, and may be seen lyingabove and below the road to Trianta. Several ofthese fallen masses are hewn as if they had formedportions of tombs or of the bed of the wall above.The line of the rock, after continuing for somedistance to the S.W., terminates in broken groundjust before the curve of the bay commences; at thispoint the bed of the foundations cut in the rockmakes an angle, turning to the east. Pursuing thisnew line across several fields , I came to polygonalblocks set in the modern wall of a field, after whichthe line was marked by a vertical cutting in therock still pointing east. On a portion of this vertical cutting a course of oblong blocks still remained,the largest of which measured 10 feet 3 inches by3 feet 4 inches. From the size of these blocks andfrom the fact that the angle from which this linecommences is the point where the ascent to the hillfrom the sea becomes more accessible on account ofthe termination of the cliff here, I infer that thecourses of masonry are the foundations of a walldefending the Acropolis on this side.The base of the vertical cutting contains sepulchral chambers cut in the rock. From this cutting(1.)166 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe ground slopes down to the S.E. into a hollow,which may have been a ravine.Proceeding eastward from this point, I came to aseries of terraces and ravines so intersected by thewalls of fields and gardens that it is exceedingly difficult to discern the vestiges of the ancient city; stillmore so to indicate their position in such a manneras to enable subsequent travellers to find them.Everywhere I met with inscribed altars and bases ofstatues, and fragments of architecture, and especiallyin the courtyards of the ruined Turkish houses, whichabound on the site. Many large tombs cut in therock occur at intervals, and the beds to receive thefoundations of temples were still to be traced inseveral places. It would be impossible to indicatewith accuracy the position of these remains unlessa plan were made of the whole site on a large scale.In the absence of such a plan I noted down. my observations as much as possible in connection withseveral roads by which the hill is traversed and whichmay be considered as fixed points. In exploringthis ground, I was accompanied by Mr. AlfredBiliotti, the cancelliere of the Consulate, whose greatlocal knowledge enabled me to see much which Ishould otherwise have missed. On crossing theTurkish cemetery about half-way between theAmboise gate and the bastion of St. George, we cometo the commencement of a road which points to theN.W. , leading to the summit of St. Stephen's hill.For some yards from its commencement the rock ishewn on each side, showing the line of an ancientway.IN THE LEVANT. 167Following this line to a place where a piece ofHellenic wall occurs on the left side of the road, weturned off on a cross-road running in a S.S.E. direction, and having on the right a vertical cutting.Proceeding along this road we passed on the leftan old chapel of the Knights, at which point the roadturns to the S.E. A little further on is a chapeldedicated by the Grand Master Dieudonné de Gozo.I was told that an inscription in large charactershad been recently found here, which had been concealed by the Turk to whom the field belongs.Alittle further on we came to a cross-road pointingto the N.W. In the wall bounding this road on theright was part of a shaft of variegated marble, and inthe same wall about three yards further on, the fragment of an inscription in blue marble, which appearsto have been a dedication to Helios, or the Sungod, by certain Rhodians. The last words of thisfragment appear to refer to an earthquake. Theinscription is in large letters of the Roman period.At this point we turned out of the road into somefields on the left. Here were foundations of a Byzantine building, and a little further on two inscriptionsnear a ruined house and a palm-tree. One of thesewas on a block of blue marble 3 feet by 2 feetby 2 feet, and recorded the conferring of a crown ofgold on Anaxibios, son of Pheidianax, by the peopleof Rhodes. The letters were of a good period. Theblock seems to have formed part of a large pedestal.The other inscription was a dedication in honour ofone Timokrates, in fine letters on a square base ofblue marble. On this spot are also two drums of tra-168 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESvertine columns . A few yards further to the S.W.are two drums of Doric columns 2 feet 9 inches indiameter, and apparently in their original position .They are of travertine which has been covered withstucco. The intercolumniation is 6 feet 3 inches .There are several more of these lying in the sameline along a ridge which continues for 31 yardsfrom N. to S. and marks the line of these columns.To the W.N.W. of these remains is an artificialhollow with a terrace running round, which appearsto be a stadium. The direction of this stadium isfrom N.N.E. by E. to S.S.W. by W. At the southernend it is curved, the other end being open.Immediately to the north of the stadium is aruined house with a well, at the side of which is ablock of blue marble, 1 foot 7 inches wide by 1 foot10 inches by 1 foot, on which is an inscription recording that the demos of the Lindopolitæ and thephratria ( árpa) of the Druitæ had rewarded with agolden crown Eualkidas, son of Antilochos, in thepriesthood of Antilochos.74This block had been converted into a drinkingtrough.To the N.N.W. of the stadium is a platformlevelled and cut into steps, and in the boundarywall of a vineyard is the drum of a travertinecolumn, about 5 feet 10 inches in diameter.Biliotti thinks that this is in position, and remembers large Hellenic blocks on which it rests, andwhich are now covered with earth. It would seemfrom the form of the ground that the vineyardoccupies the site of a temple about 59 paces long byIN THE LEVANT. 16945 broad. Its greatest length lies parallel with thestadium. Near this vineyard is a Turkish house, atthe door of which is a square base of blue marbleinscribed with a dedication to Apollo Pythios byGlykon, an Athenian, who held the office of proxenos or consul at Rhodes.To the N.N.W. of the stadium a road cut throughthe rock leads to a higher platform, where is thedrum of a column of calcareous stone 4 feet indiameter.Near this cutting are some steps, also rough hewn.A little to the east of the stadium is a great platform, where, perhaps, stood a temple of the Sun, asseveral inscriptions mentioning priests of this deityhave been found near this spot.It will be seen by the plan, that another roadleads from the Turkish cemetery to the Acropolis,commencing a little to the north of the Amboisegate. This road passes over a little eminence, onwhich are three windmills. It was from this pointthat the cannon of Mahomet II. did great damageduring the siege. Nearly parallel with this roadmay be traced very distinctly from the commencement of the slope to the windmills the line of anancient way, indicated sometimes by the bed cut inthe rock, and in one place by the massive kerbstones on one side . This road is marked in theAdmiralty chart as a wall. On the south side of itrectangular foundations cut in the rock indicate theposition of tombs. The windmills stand on massesof rock, the base of which has been cut into sepulchral chambers. On the north side of the windmills170 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESare two circular shafts, which probably lead to subterraneous tombs.After passing the windmills, the traces of theancient road become less distinct till they are lost ondescending a slope crossed by a modern aqueduct.Its direction is N.W. to S.E.After following out this road, we examined sometombs on the S.E. side of the Acropolis.Here are some large subterranean chambers linedwith stucco, and entered by a vertical shaft.From an examination of this side of the Acropolis,I should infer that the strata of rock of which it iscomposed were originally scarped to a much greaterdepth than at present appears, the scarp havingbeen filled up by the deposit of soil from above. Inthese scarps have been cut the entrances to tombs.In one place south of the stadium is part of amonolithic tomb, on the face of which is a bucklercut in relief.Crossingthe Turkish cemetery in a direction southof the tower of St. Mary I came to a Turkish garden,where are six blocks of blue marble, all ofwhichappearto be pedestals of statues. One of them was inscribedwith a dedication by the people of Rhodes to LuciusDecrius and his wife Agrippina. In a courtyarda little to the W. of these marbles is a block of bluemarble, now a water-trough, measuring 4 feet by2 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 4 inches, on which are theremains of a dedication in fine letters, recording thenames of victors in the Pythian, Isthmian, andNemean games, and in the games called Halieia,celebrated at Rhodes in honour of the Sun-god.IN THE LEVANT. 171Below, in smaller characters, is the name of thesculptor, Theon of Antioch, by whom the objectdedicated was made. The mention of Antiochproves that this inscription is of a date subsequentto Alexander the Great.In the same courtyard is a pedestal of blue marble, 3 feet 9 inches by 2 feet by 2 feet 6 inches, withholes at the top for the feet of a statue. This isinscribed with the name Antisthenes, son of Architimos, priest of the Sun; below is the name of thesculptor, Onasiphron, son of Kleonaios, of Salamis.75In this field is a raised platform, about 63 paces longby 21 wide, on which a temple may have stood.In an adjacent vineyard are many squared blocksbuilt into the walls.To the S.W. of St. Stephen's hill a platform extends along the shore, from the point where I noticedthe angle made by the wall along the edge of thecliff. This platform is rather higher than St.Stephen's hill . On its W. and S. edge is a ridge, onthe surface of which lie at intervals loose squareblocks of no great size .the outline of the hill ,for the defence of the platform; but from the smallsize of the blocks it may be inferred that this wallwas not part of the main fortifications of theAcropolis. From the evidence of an inscriptionrelating to Zeus Atabyrios found here, Ross andM. Guérin identify this platform as the hill whichArrian (Mithradat . c. 26) describes as easily scaled,and as having on the summit a temple of that Deitysurrounded by a low wall. It was this hill thatThis ridge, which followsmarks the line of a wall(1.)172 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESMithradates sought to surprise by a night attackduring his siege of Rhodes. The character of thesite corresponds sufficiently with the descriptionin Arrian. It is probable that Mithradates landedbelow, at about the same place as the Turks did intheir expedition under Mahomet the Second.76This platform overlooks a pleasant valley calledSandruli, where is an abundant source of water,overshadowed by planes, orange-trees, stone pines,and other trees. It was probably a favourite placeof resort for the ancient Rhodians.It is likely that tombs would be found on thisplatform, for on its S.E. side is a small marble cist,inscribed with the name of Timasikrates, the son ofBularchos, and another bearing the name of Euagoras, son of Damaratos. A road which seems tofollow the line of an ancient road leads from Sandruli to the south of St. Stephen's Mount. Onthe right-hand side of this road, at the distance offive minutes' walk from Sandruli, is a hill, on theside of which is a block of white marble, 3 feet 6 incheslong by 2 feet by 1 foot 7 inches, on two opposite facesof which are sculptured three bulls' heads. From thecentre head hangs an ivy wreath; the other headsare crowned with myrtle.On one face under the bulls' heads is a dedicationin honour of Aristobulos of Termessos, and his wifeIsigone of Ephesos. Both are styled on the marblebenefactors; and it is stated that Aristobulos defrayed the expense of the choregia on bringing outsome dramatic entertainment three times. Closeto this block was another, similar in form andIN THE LEVANT. 173dimensions, on which it had probably been placed.These marbles seem to be part of a pedestal. Alittle higher up on the same hill is a square altarinscribed with the name of Xenobulos, son ofApollodotos.At the foot of St. Stephen's hill, on the north,is a tannery, where may be seen several large blocksand drums of blue marble. Here is a natural fountain, and the site is not an unlikely one for a temple.A road passing this tannery runs on to theshore, crossing a bridge and then turning to theW. At the angle may be seen under the soil of themodern road courses of ancient squared blocks.This road leads to the village of Trianta.It is probable that it follows the line of the ancientroad but on a higher level, as much rock has fallenfrom the cliff above. All along the side of the roadhere the soil is full of fragments of pottery, and inone place is the entrance to a gallery cut in therock, which points to the south, and may have beenan aqueduct.Between St. Stephen's hill and the harbours,inscriptions and other remains of the ancient citymay be seen in various places; but such strayvestiges throw little or no light on the planof the ancient city, and do not enable us toidentify any one of its buildings. It is evident that,as Rhodes was strongly fortified , the Acropolis musthave been connected with the harbours by wallsenclosing a large area. What the direction of thesewalls was, cannot be determined without furtherevidence than we at present possess. It is probable174 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthat they included the quarter called Neo Maras,north of the present town, and the greater part ofthe sandy spit beyond, for the following reasons.On this shore, as will be seen by the Admiraltychart, No. 1637, are two rows of windmills, whichconverge towards the point of the spit, and runnearly parallel with its shores. Between the twolast windmills on the western shore, that is to saythose most distant from the point of the sandy spit ,is a foundation cropping up through the sand on theedge of the sea.On excavating here, I traced three lines of massivefoundations, apparently the base of an oblong tower.The wall nearest the sea measured 26 yards, runningN.N.E. by N. Another ran at right angles to it for29 yards, when it made a return. The oppositewall could only be traced for 15 yards. Thisfoundation is composed of large blocks of conglomerate, 8 feet 6 inches wide. The length of theThe depth of theseinches. The foundationlongest was 15 feet 10 inches.blocks was 1 foot 7facing the sea had on its outer face a step 1 foot6 inches wide. This face has been worn smooth bythe action of the sea. The two foundations runningat right angles, were entirely concealed beneath sandand shingle, under which, as I advanced towardsthe windmills, I found ancient soil, with fragmentsof pottery. A little to the S.W. of these foundations is a rocky ridge running out into the sea,and forming a natural breakwater. Between thewindmills and the French church is a swampy hollow,which during most part of the year is covered withIN THE LEVANT. 175water. Looking at the position of this lake relativelyto the foundations on the shore, I am inclined tothink that it must in ancient times have been aharbour. Indeed, I am assured by M. Ducci, theRussian vice- consul here, that he remembers tohave heard from old inhabitants of Rhodes atradition that a canal formerly connected this lakewith the sea. If we suppose that another canalanciently communicated between this lake and PortMandraki, ships would have been able to pass inand out without having to weather the sandy point.Such an hypothesis would give a more definitemeaning to the rhetorical statement of Aristides(see ante, p. 148), that the harbours of Rhodeswere arranged as if for the express purpose ofreceiving the ships of Ionia, as well as those ofCaria, Cyprus, and Egypt. It may be observedthat the row of windmills on the N.W. shorestands on a ridge running parallel with the edgeof the sea. It is not improbable that this ridgemarks the line of the wall of the ancient city, inwhich case the foundations uncovered by me maybe those of a square tower. The margin of shoreat the foot of this ridge has probably been thrownup, and the sandy spit prolonged by deposit fromthe sea since the time of the ancients.It will be seen by comparing the plan of Rhodes,Plate 4, with the view, Plate 5, that Port Mandrakiis separated from the great harbour by a narrowisthmus at the N.E. angle of the fortress .Within this angle is a level area, covered withrich vegetable soil, and occupied by gardens.176 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThrough this area, which lies so low that it can onlybe seen from the battlements, it is supposed that acanal formerly led, connecting the great harbour withPort Mandraki.From Strabo's description of the arsenals anddockyards at Rhodes, it may be inferred that therewere interior basins, where galleys were built andrefitted, and which probably were screened fromobservation by high walls . The level groundbetween Port Mandraki and the larger harbourmay have served for such a basin. Between thetower of De Naillac and St. Catharine's gate,a small mole runs across the great harbour, behindwhich caiques are moored in shallow water. Thismole may mark the ancient commencement of aninner basin.The mole, at the extremity of which stands thetower of St. Nicholas, has been an Hellenic work.The lowest courses of the original masonry remainin several places undisturbed on the native rock,which has been cut in horizontal beds to receivethem.At the end of the mole, enormous blocks from theancient breakwater lie scattered about.Two of these are still in position, one above theother. As the celebrated bronze Colossus was,doubtless, a conspicuous sea-mark, if not actuallyused as a Pharos, my first impression on seeingthese immense blocks was that they were theremains of its pedestal, and that it stood where thefort of St. Nicholas now stands. This opinion,suggested originally to my mind by the aspect of12220D& Colnagh PhotogTh wwwmRHODES DE NA LLAC TOWERLonech bled or at the conPlateFr.Sever

IN THE LEVANT. 177the site itself, is corroborated by the testimony ofCaoursin, the Vice- Chancellor of the Order, whosecontemporary history of the first siege was printedat Ulm as early as 1496. When describing the building of Fort St. Nicholas, he states that it was placedin " molis vertice Septentrionem spectante-ubipriscis temporibus collosus ille ingens Rhodi (unumde septem miraculis mundi) positus erat. " On theother hand, it may be objected that from Pliny'saccount of the overthrow of the Colossus we mayinfer that it fell on the earth, whereas, if throwndown from the extremity of the mole, it could hardlyfail to have fallen into the sea. It may, however,have been split open by the earthquake, and afterwards been hauled down, so as to fall along themole. The notion that its legs bestrid the entranceto either harbour, as is commonly believed, is notbased on any ancient authority.78The mole of the great harbour on which the windmills stand is also an Hellenic work, with massivefoundations, which, however, cannot be seen fromthe inside of the harbour. To the east of the greatharbour is a small bay, called Archandia, protectedon the east by a ridge of rock, on which, as hasbeen already noticed, are the remains of an ancientmole. This bay is unsuited for a harbour, as it isexposed to the north, and contains rocks; but itmay have served as a place of refuge for vesselsbeating up against a strong north wind.So far as I have been able to ascertain, no foundations of ancient buildings have been discoveredwithin the walls of the fortress; but it is probableN178 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthat many temples and other public edifices stoodwithin its precinct. The present Bazaar mayoccupy the place of the Agora. The ancient citywas probably for the most part built of calcareousstone, covered with stucco; and the greater part ofsuch materials would, in the course of ages, bebroken up into rubble, and leave no trace by whichthey might now be recognized in the walls of moremodern structures.Very few ancient architectural marbles are now tobe found in the Turkish town. In every direction,however, are to be seen small circular cippi, which,from the inscriptions they bear, seem to be, for themost part, the pedestals of Iconic statues. In a fewinstances, the name of the sculptor who executedthe statue is recorded below that of the personrepresented. Many of these pedestals are probablysepulchral; and, being circular, and of no greatbulk, they may have been easily transported fromsome distance. At present they serve as horseblocks at the doors of the houses.If ancient Rhodes contained, as Pliny states,3,000 statues, the great number of these inscribedpedestals still extant is not surprising.What were the limits of the ancient city on thesouth, we have no means of ascertaining. Afterpassing through the Jewish cemetery outside theramparts, we come to a belt of suburbs on that side,inhabited by Greeks, and enclosed with high gardenwalls, into which inscriptions and other ancientremains are built.Beyond this suburb are rock- cut tombs extendingIN THE LEVANT. 179for miles over the whole district between St.Stephen's hill and the eastern shore. Many ofthese tombs may be seen half-buried in the sandalong the shore, between the suburb of St. John andthe bed of a winter torrent which anciently flowedthrough an ample rock- cut channel to the sea.On the left side of this duct many Greek nameshave been cut on the scarped face of the rock.A bridge, the lower part of which is built ofmassive regular courses, and which appears to beHellenic, crosses this stream, and doubtless marksthe line of the ancient road leading to the city,with tombs on each side of it. A little furtherto the south is Symbulli, a most picturesque spot,with a fine fountain overshadowed by plane- trees .The grateful and refreshing shade of this spot,and the excellent quality of its water, make it afavourite place of resort for the Rhodiotes on theirjours de fête, and it was probably not less frequentedin antiquity. Near the basin into which the fountainflows, Ross noticed a fragment of an altar of whitemarble, nearly 12 foot in diameter, on which hasbeen a frieze of dancing figures, now nearly effaced.Symbulli is situated on the right bank of a ravine,at the point where it is crossed by an aqueduct,which was probably built by the Knights. Theplane-trees are overlooked by a rocky ridge runningfrom S.W. to N.E., which on both sides and at itsnorth extremity is cut into steps.Near Symbulli are a number of rock-cut tombs,one of which is locally known by the name, Tomb ofthe Ptolemies , for no other reason than that a coinN 2180 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESof one of that dynasty is said to have been discoveredon this site. This tomb has been engraved anddescribed by Ross in his " Archäologische Aufsätze. " 79It has been cut out of a small hill of sandstonesituated between two ravines, which form thechannels of winter torrents. The form of the tombis a basem*nt rather more than 88 feet square, andresting on three steps, above which has probablybeen a pyramid cut out of the rock. On each sideof the basem*nt are twenty-one engaged columns ofvery slender proportions. Their capitals are brokenaway; but, as they are without bases, they wereprobably Doric, though the shafts are not fluted.Ross calculates that their height, inclusive of thearchitrave, did not probably exceed 5 metres, with adiameter of 48 centimetres.Large masses of the base lie at the foot of themonument, which have been broken away either byearthquakes or the undermining force of the torrentflowing below. Only the north side has been wellpreserved. On this side is the only entrance nowto be found a doorway between the fifth and sixthpillar from the N.W. angle, which leads into anantechamber, communicating with a second chamber,round which are long recesses for the reception ofbodies . This chamber is rather more than 22 feetlong, and about 14 feet wide. It has long sincebeen plundered of its contents, and contains nofragment of sarcophagi or other sepulchral remains.It is evident, from the position of these chambers,that they occupy only one-fourth of the whole areaIN THE LEVANT. 181of the basem*nt; and as there is no sign that thetomb has ever been opened in any other part, it ispossible that, if the ruins round the base werecleared away, other chambers might be disclosed.The upper part of this monument is now coveredwith earth, on which trees are growing, and it ispossible that an earthen mound may have beenoriginally heaped over it; but from the analogy ofsimilar monuments, I am inclined to think that itwas surmounted by a pyramid.With regard to the age of this monument, thereis no sure evidence to guide us. Ross thinks thatit may be a work of the later Hellenic period; at thesame time he observes with truth that its designhas more affinity with Oriental, and especially withPhoenician, than with purely Greek types.Between this tomb and St. Stephen's hill, and fora considerable distance to the south of Symbulli, area succession of low table-lands, formed of tertiarylimestone and sandstone, out of which vast quantities of building materials have been quarried bythe ancients; and all through this district tombsare to be met with-mostly plain sepulchral chambers, long since rifled of their contents.Ross thinks that the walls of the ancient cityenclosed much of this waste land, and he met withtraces of them in several places at the distance ofan hour and a half from the modern town. Themassive materials of which these walls were composed have long since disappeared, and were probablyemployed by the Knights to build their fortresswith. On the other hand, the form of the ground182 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEShas probably been much changed by the severeearthquakes to which Rhodes has been from timeto time subjected; so that, though it cannot quite besaid of this once famous city, etiam periere ruinæ, itssite is far less striking than that of most Helleniccities from the absence of marked and definitefeatures.I feel, therefore, that the few disconnected factswhich I have here noted down are of little presentinterest; though they may, perhaps, aid futuretravellers in exploring the ancient topography ofRhodes.XIV.RHODES, May 4, 1853.A FEW days ago, I started with M. Ducci, theRussian Vice- Consul, to pay a visit to the monasteryof Zambika, five hours distant from Rhodes, on thesouth coast of the island, where the inhabitants ofthe adjoining village of Archangelo were celebratingtheir Easter, called λaμρn by the Greeks. On ourarrival, we were ushered into a spacious courtyardfull of peasants. In the middle of the crowd wasthe only ecclesiastic in the monastery, an old gentleman with a venerable beard, a long gown, a blackcap, such as we see in pictures of the 15th century,and a staff in his hand. (See Plate 12. ) He cameforward and gave us a hospitable welcome, makingan attempt to salute me with a kiss on each cheek;Howton,deliTHE ARCHIMANDRITE NIKANDROSLorgon . Published by Day & Son, Lith's to the Queen (LIMITED)ISevernPlate 12متر184 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESWhen we looked round the quadrangle, I saw apicturesque and curious scene. The whole population of several villages were gathered together inthe open air, their mules picketed outside; eachfamily provided with its own cooking apparatus.They were all dressed in the picturesque costumewhich is still to be met with in those islandsof the Archipelago where the tasteless printedcalicoes of Manchester have not yet supersededthe native products of the spinning-wheel and theloom .The Rhodian peasants, both male and female, wearsnow-white dresses spun and woven by their ownhands, from flax grown on their own soil . Nothingcan be more beautiful than the effect of thiswhite drapery in the strong sunlight, set off bythe contrast of tawny weatherbeaten limbs andfaces.I was so struck with the costume of the womenthat I did nothing but fix my eyes upon them;whereat my friend, the Russian Vice-Consul,growing alarmed, told me to reserve my observations till they began to dance, when I might lookon without being remarked, as he was afraid thatthe men might not understand the motive of myscrutiny. I was rather amused at this caution, forso far as personal beauty was concerned, I neverbeheld women less attractive . As soon as theysaw me take out my note-book to describe the scene,they gathered round me, like minnows round acrumb of bread, and on every side I heard the criesof Tí pás ,—" What is he writing? " When I ex-IN THE LEVANT. 185plained that I was taking notes of their dresses,an aged crone stepped forward on behalf of hersex, and initiated me into the arcana of Rhodiantoilette with a frankness which left nothing for theimagination.A Rhodian contadina may be thus described herhead is covered with a Fez cap of red cloth; outside which a shawl is wound round the crown ofthe head; outside the shawl again a muslin veilhangs down from the back of the neck in trueantique style, with an inner veil appearing underneath it. On the front of the head is a goldor silver ornament of a triangular form fastened tothe shawl; in the centre is a large garnet, andfrom the base of the triangle hang ornaments,suspended by little chains. This kind of ornamentis clearly of Byzantine origin.80 So much for thehead-dress.With regard to the rest, the innermost garment is a shift, falling nearly to the ancles;then comes a garment without sleeves, reachingabout half-way down the leg, under the skirt ofwhich the edge of a pair of trousers is just visible.Over this is worn a jacket with sleeves. Roundthe waist is a girdle, loosely and gracefully tied,though I cannot say that it had any of the magicinfluence which Homer attributed to the cestus ofVenus.Quaint Turkish slippers, turned up at the toes ,and clean white stockings complete this dress,in which, as in most things in the Archipelago,there is a mixture of classical and Turkish fashions.186 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe general material was white cloth, edgedwith a border worked by the hand with patternsvery like those of the old Greek borders. Theseborders were generally red and blue. Onepetticoat was sometimes of silk of a brightcolour. The outer petticoat was gathered in atthe waist, so as to be full of plaits, a fashionvery usual in the early Greek sculpture. Downthe side of this garment was a perpendicularstripe of embroidery, meeting the border of theskirt at right angles: this stripe, which occursconstantly in the costume of figures on Greek vases,was called by the ancients paruphe.I next saw the people of Archangelo dance.The whole village, men and women, joined handin hand and danced round a fiddler in thecentre of an irregular crescent. The fiddle, stillcalled λúpa, was of a most ancient form, such asis to be found on the very late Pagan and earlyChristian sarcophagi. It is played with a bow,from which hang little bells. The fiddler was avery curious figure, who accompanied his music withquaint contortions: like Tyrtæus, he was lame. Themusic was an incessant, monotonous repetition ofthesame tune, to which the feet of the whole chorusbeat time with marvellous precision. The step was avery simple one, -two side steps, the left foot first,then the right foot advanced once; this simplemovement repeated eternally. The only merit ofthe dance consists in the perfect regularity withwhich the corps de ballet is drilled. This dance iscalled Rhoditikos choros; but I am told that it isIN THE LEVANT. 187borrowed from Crete. Possibly it has been derivedfrom one of those military dances for which theCretans were celebrated in antiquity. Within theregular hand-in-hand crescent of dancers one or twomen appeared from time to time at the side of thefiddler, joining with him in very grotesque antics, inwhich an enthusiastic Phil- Hellene might discern thetradition of the mimetic dances of the ancients.In the early part of the morning the picture ofthe Panagia was brought out of the church andexposed to the gaze and kisses of the multitude formore than an hour. I should think she would requirea new coat of varnish next week. The old lady whohad taken such pains to analyze her costume for me,when she had finished her explanations said: "NowI expect you to give something to the Panagia,"and, taking me by the hand, led me up to the greatgoggle- eyed picture, which I did not kiss , compounding for this ceremony by a liberal dole ofpiasters.In the church I saw people sticking gold coinswith wax on the faces of the saints: this customhas been handed down from Pagan times, for it isdescribed by Lucian.81On going down to the village of Archangelo, wefound it nearly empty of its inhabitants. After seeinga Greek village on the day of a festival, one can understand those stories in antiquity of towns being takenby surprise, the enemy marching in while theinhabitants were engaged at a festival in theneighbouring temple. I saw here a large church,which had just been built. The roof was formed188 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESby intersecting Gothic vaults solidly built ofstone. The templum, as the east end is called,was separated from the rest of the church bya lofty rood-loft covered with elaborate carving invery bad taste. I inquired where they had foundmoney to build such a church, and was told that itwas the result of contributions in kind, the peasantshaving severally given so many days' labour, andthe building materials having in likebeen furnished by the richer inhabitants. It wasdoubtless by similar free gifts that such magnificentchurches and abbeys were built in the Middle Ages,in spite of difficulties of communication and a mostimperfect development of commercial credit. Thetradition of the Gothic style seems to have beenretained at Rhodes since the time of the Knights.99I had so many questions to ask the priest, that Istayed in the church till I was roused by a warningcry from without of Psylli, psylli, " Fleas, fleas;and looking down, saw my trousers covered withfiles of black monster fleas, who were stormingme by escalade. I dashed down the leaderswith my hands; but they continued to crawl insuch quantities that I should have been devouredwithout the assistance of the good-natured peasants,who laughed excessively. They explained to me,that as the whole population had been on theirknees for several days in the church, it verynaturally swarmed with fleas, whom even the Archangel himself (to whom the church is dedicated)had no power to excommunicate.At Archangelo is a castle built by the Knights

8218 INTIKIR16'HOUSE000 00Ilate 13IN THE LEVANT. 189overlooking the village and commanding an extensiveview. On a tablet on the N.E. wall I copied partof an inscription in Gothic letters.yfutCastelSignor framgre maistreOn the N. wall were four escutcheons of the Knights.On our way back we slept at a village near Rhodescalled Koskino, one of the cleanest and most flourishing in the island. Here most of the inhabitantsare muleteers, and own a little land besides. Theyare a thriving, active, fine-grown set of men, goodspecimens of the peasant proprietor.Externally the house of the Rhodian peasant muchresembles those in the villages of Malta. It is builtof squared blocks of freestone, the door on one side,and very high up under the roof two small windows.The roof is flat, and supported inside by one largearch traversing the whole width of the house. Theceiling is made of reeds, over which outside is athick bed of earth, which intercepts the fiercer raysof the sun, and, if duly rolled, keeps out the winterrain.Internally, the house forms one large room verydestitute of furniture. ( See Plate 13. ) In one corneris the nuptial bed, raised high above the floor ona kind of platform; in another corner the fireplace.The wall opposite the door is ornamented with animposing array of plates of the old Lindos ware,each hung by a string. They are for ornament,not for use, and form part of the dower which every190 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbride brings with her. The designs of these platesare generally floral patterns; the fabric seemssimilar to that of the Italian Majolica, though coarserin material and execution. The designs are soPersian in character, that it has been thought bysome archæologists that these plates were all imported from the East to Rhodes. There is, however, reason to believe that the greater part of thosestill existing in the island are of native manufacture,for on some of them are escutcheons with heraldicbearings . Below these plates a string stretchesright across the wall; from it hang embroiderednapkins wrought with very good taste by the womenof the place; below these ornamental hangings is arow of large cupboards, containing various householdimplements. In another corner hangs the breadbasket, which is a large tray made ofreeds, suspendedfrom the ceiling, so as to be quite out of the way ofall animals. Arriving just after Easter-day, we sawthe Easter bread which had just been made, andwhich lasts as a stock for many weeks: it is in formlike a ring. On another wall was a horizontal string,from which depended the Sunday clothes of bothmen and women, all beautifully embroidered andscrupulously clean. On one side of the fireplace Inoticed a round earthen pot shaped like a bushel,in which the forks and spoons are kept; and hencethis is called kyttalotheke, -xUTTaλοýжη.The mortar is still called yon, pronounced yon;the pestle zép , or the hand.The implements of spinning are unchanged fromantiquity. The spindle is still called άτpaxTo; the ironIN THE LEVANT. 191hook at the top, ayxwváp; the round part or whirlat the bottom, σovoúan; the distaff round which thecotton is wound is called pouxa, probably from theItalian rocca.We arrived at Koskino at the end of a feast, andfound the beginning of a fray. I saw the knife brandished high in the air, but there was no great harmdone. Half the village took part in the originalquarrel; the turbans were rolled in the gutters; atlast, out came the women to drag their husbandsand children out of the mêlée. •"What does it concern us, Chellebi, " said myphilosophic muleteer; " it is the Sultan's business,not ours, to look after the lives and safety of hissubjects. Let them stick knives into each other ifthey will;" a most Levantine sentiment. Thisvillage being much nearer Rhodes than Archangelo,it was curious to see how the indirect influence ofEuropean civilization was spoiling the costume. TheManchester printed cotton blended its tawdry patterns with the simple, classical colours of the originalisland dress. There was, too, a corresponding changein the manners of the people: they danced, but thescene was less idyllic.XV.RHODES, May 12, 1853.I HAVE just returned from an excursion, in whichI was accompanied by a Koskiniote muleteer,named Panga, a sort of Rhodian Gil Blas, witty,192 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESclever, ready to turn his hand to anything, good orbad. The shrewd, roguish twinkle in his eye toldme at once that he would be an admirable mezzano inpurchasing antiquities from the peasants. He is anexcellent cook, and a very agreeable companion toany one who knows Greek.Our first object was to pay a visit to Lindos, thesite of that most ancient city which traded withEgypt long before Rhodes was founded, and whichis mentioned by Homer in the same line in whichhe records the names of Ialysos and Kamiros.Our road lay along the south-eastern shore of theisland. We slept the first night at our muleteer'svillage, Koskino, and started for Lindos at 5 a.m.the next morning. For the first three hoursof our route we kept along the sea- shore, passingover a barren sandy country, thrown into fantasticshapes by earthquakes. At 8 a.m. we turned a littleinland along an ancient road cut in the rock. Between this pass and the sea there is a high craggymountain. After traversing this pass, we entered amore hilly country, passing on our left the villageof Archangelo, and on our right the ruins of afortress called Pollanda. At four and a half hours'distance from Koskino, we crossed the last ridge ofhills, and descended into a plain, in which is thevillage of Mallona, surrounded by fertile gardens,planted with orange, lemon, fig, pomegranate, andwalnut trees . From this village the road keepsalong a level shore till within a short distance ofLindos, to which we ascended by a steep and brokenroad, flanked by tombs on each side. The town

Ilat 11IN THE LEVANT. 193is beautifully situated on the base and side of a rock,on the summit of which the ancient Acropolisstood, and which is now crowned by a mediævalcastle, built by the Knights. This rock is partof a headland jutting out towards Egypt, andmakes a very conspicuous sea- mark on the southerncoast. From the centre of the castle walls rises atall palm-tree, the feathery lightness of which formsa striking contrast to the stern and massive battlements from which it springs. In the castle are someapartments ornamented with the remains of landscapes painted in fresco, and inscribed with Gothiclegends; the fleur- de-lys of France is sculpturedover one of the chimney-pieces. On the walls ofone of the rooms are the arms of the Order, and ofthe Grand Master D'Amboise.Lindos is full of specimens of the architecture ofthe Knights. The streets are most picturesque, witharched passages thrown across them. The houses,though more than three centuries old, are fresh as ifbuilt yesterday; and it is curious that in this obscurecorner of the Turkish empire we have as well preserved specimens of the military architecture ofEurope in the 15th century as perhaps anywhere inEurope itself. The Turks have here, as at Rhodes,done little injury to the buildings left by theKnights. The principal church is Byzantine, witha cupola. At the west end is a bell - toweradded by the Knights of St. John, with the armsof one of their Order sculptured on the wall;the walls and vaulted roof inside are covered withfrescoes representing Christian legends. On the0194 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwooden screen which separates the templum, orchancel, from the church, are two curious paintings;one representing our Saviour, the other the Virginwith the infant Christ in her arms. The Saviourholds a book in his hand. Under this picture is thefollowing inscription in Byzantine Greek."Remember also thy servant George and his wife. "The letters are in brass, ornamented with a kind offleur-de-lys. The features are coarsely shaded. Theface of the Christ has probably been repainted. Theeyebrows of the Virgin meet. The nimbi, extremities, and dress of these figures, and the book held bythe Saviour, are relieved in metal, which appeared tobe silver-gilt.From the style of the painting and metallurgy, Ishould infer that these pictures were perhaps of asearly a period as the 12th century, though it is verydifficult to judge of Greek paintings in churches, asthey are constantly renewed and beautified, to repairthe damages sustained by the intense kissing theygo through at the feasts .On one of the walls of this church is a frescorepresenting a number of angels playing on musicalinstruments; a figure is lying down, to whom theyare ministering.On the south side is a rude relief, of Roman times,representing a palm-tree, above which is a rosette.Within the castle are many marbles from theancient Acropolis, among which are a number ofinscriptions discovered and published by Ross.They contain numerous dedications to AtheneIN THE LEVANT. 195Lindia and Zeus Polieus. Near the governor'sFragments ofOn the S.E.house is a piece of wall which Ross recognized aspart of the cella of a Doric temple.its architecture still remain in situ.side of the Acropolis, and on its highest point, isthe wall of another temple, built on the very edge ofthe precipitous rock, and hence incorporated in thesubsequent wall built by the Knights round theircastle. Ross found very few traces of the architecture of this temple, but supposes that it was Doric,like the other. He thinks that the temple on thesummit of the Acropolis must from its commandingposition have been that of Athene Lindia, who fromthe evidence of the inscriptions found here seemsto have occupied a higher place in the worship ofLindos than Zeus, with whom her name is associatedin these dedicatory inscriptions. The temple ofAthene Lindia was of remote antiquity; its foundation was attributed in Greek legend to Danaos andhis daughters. Many precious and celebrated worksof art were stored up here as votive offerings , theearliest of which were ascribed to the mythic period.Here were shown a brazen caldron inscribed withPhoenician characters and dedicated by Cadmus, andthe model in electrum of a female breast, the offeringof Helen on her return from Troy; here in the 5thcentury B.C., Amasis, king of Egypt, dedicated twomarble statues and a cuirass of linen, a masterpiece of textile art; and here, in letters of gold, waspreserved a copy of the ode in which Pindar hasimmortalized the Olympic victory of the RhodianDiagoras.830 2196 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe temple of which Ross discovered the remains,and which probably occupies the original site consecrated to Athene, was of very small dimensions,its scale being intermediate between that of theErectheum and the Temple of Victory at Athens.The site of the ancient theatre is south of theAcropolis. Most of the seats are cut out of thenative rock, and face the S.E.; sixteen rows remainon one side; on the opposite side, the seats musthave been constructed with masonry.Immediately to the west of the theatre is theperibolos of an ancient temple, described both byHamilton and Ross, and which we found in a fairstate of preservation.The walls are of blue limestone. Within thisprecinct is a chapel, dedicated to St. Stephen, antecedently to which a Byzantine church on a larger scaleprobably occupied this site. On a square blocklying here is an inscription, dedicated by a priestof Apollo and Artemis.STo the west of the town are the remains of theinteresting rock tomb, of which a view is given asthe frontispiece to Ross's Travels , vol . iii . It consisted originally of a large sepulchral chamber cutin the native freestone rock, with oblong recesses,thecæ, cut in the sides for the reception of the deadbodies. Externally the tomb has been cut in theform of a Doric façade with engaged columns, thecentre part of which is now broken away. Abovethis façade the rock is cut so as to form a level platform, on which have been placed a number of roundsepulchral cippi, ornamented with bulls' heads andIN THE LEVANT. 197festoons. One of these seems to be still in position;four others are lying on the ground in front of thetomb.Ross considers that this Doric façade is of theMacedonian period: it is very similar in character tosome of the Hellenic tombs in Lycia.85After leaving Lindos we rode along the shoretowards Jannathi. At half an hour's distancefrom Lindos, we found some ancient quarries andtombs cut in the rock. After riding for an hour anda half more, we came to a place called Peukonaat the end of a pine forest, where there is a heapof grey marble lying together so as to form a mound,probably the remains of a watch-tower. I noticedon the ground here an altar with festoons, and partof a cippus of grey marble; but no inscriptions.From this place to Jannathi I continued to note atintervals ancient remains along the shore. I noticedin this part of my route cattle of a very beautifuland classical form; the bulls had a slight hump, notso marked as the Indian bull's, and were finelymodelled about the forehead. These bulls are saidto be partially wild. The peasants of Rhodes callthem Taupo , whereas the usual name for oxen isβόδι.86 Keeping along the shore, we got to Jannathi,distant about five hours to the south of Lindos .This village is a very miserable one, but the peasantswere building a fine new church. Thence wecrossed over a mountain-ridge to Apolakkia on theW. coast, where I had heard that some inscriptionshad been found. The island is narrow here, and198 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdestitute of cultivation, with very few villages. Onour right we saw Mount Atabyron, which on thisside appears a bleak and naked mass, treeless, exceptat its base. On our left was Mesanagros.87 NearApolakkia, at the distance of a quarter of an hourfrom the village, are the remains of a church calledAgia Irene, which had just been dug up. Amongthe ruins were several columns and slabs of whitemarble, which appeared to be Byzantine of the 11thor 12th century. On one of the slabs I found along inscription very legible. It contains a decreeof the people of Netteia, which doubtless must havebeen a city in Rhodes, though I can find no trace ofit elsewhere. The inscription also mentions a religious society called Euthalidæ, and several othercurious particulars. I tried to buy this marble, andhad completed the purchase with the προεστώς,or primate; but alas! I was thwarted by thepriest of the village, who forbade the bargain;so I went away sorrowing, and on my return toRhodes, addressed myself to the Archbishop, whopromises to get me the stone in consideration of asmall sum to be paid as a present to the church.There is a castle at Apolakkia very roughly built,in the walls of which is an escutcheon of the Knightsof Rhodes; but the masonry appears rather Turkishthan Christian. Tobacco, cotton, and corn are grownhere. From this place we went along the shorenorthward, through a barren country to Monolithos,distant two hours. About halfway we passed avast landslip stretching down to the shore: fromthis spot to Monolithos we remarked many frag-IN THE LEVANT. 199ments of pottery and traces of ancient buildings.The country seems to have been much disturbed byearthquakes. At a quarter of an hour from thevillage of Monolithos is a castle of the Knights,perched on the top of an isolated rock overlookingthe sea. The name of the village, Movóλos, " allmarble," is derived from this rock.ss The situationof this fortress and its name reminded me of thevillage in Mytilene called Petra, from being perchedin like manner on the top of a rock. The walls ofthis castle are roughly built. Within it is a chapel,in which I found a number of frescoes covered withcobwebs, which appeared to be Italian of the 15thcentury. They contained many figures of saints.and armorial bearings of the Knights. Outsidethis chapel were two saucers of Lindos ware letinto the south wall, a fashion very common in Italy.The arms of the Grand Master D'Aubusson appear among the decorations.On a hill a little N. of the village, are the ruinsof a square Hellenic tower, built of unwroughtstones, with hewn lintels and door-jambs. Wecould trace out the foundations: the door-jambswith holes for the bolts are still standing. Thelength of the W. wall is 43 feet . On the S. side,the wall can be traced for 33 feet. North- eastof this tower are the remains of another building.The W. wall of this measured 47 feet 8 inches, theN. side 39 feet 9 inches . These walls are built oflarge blocks of stone. One of the largest blocksis 6 feet 5 inches in length by 1 foot 10 inches inthickness.200 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESWithin this outer enclosure is an inner line ofwall 24 feet 2 inches on the W. side: the foundations appear to be a square within the outer square.From Monolithos we went to Siana, along thefoot of Mount Akramytis, which runs towards thesea in a S.W. direction , and of which the height,according to the Admiralty chart, is 2,706 feet.At Siana I found another castle of the Knights,and evident remains of an Hellenic city .About ten minutes to the N.W. of the village,on the side of a hill , was a rectangular basem*nt,composed of large marble blocks of Hellenic masonry. The longest side , running N. and S. ,measured 10 feet 10 inches. One of the blockswas 7 feet 8 inches by 2 feet 8 inches by 1 foot6 inches. Near this spot I observed a piece ofHellenic wall. Nearer the village was a stone seatcut in the rock, and by the side of it two steps ,originally part of the same rock, but separated fromit by a chasm. On the other side of the seat is araised platform, with a deep groove at the side.The chasm between the seat and steps seemedcaused by an earthquake. The platform remindedme of the bema in the Athenian Pnyx.On this site are remains of rock tombs whichseem to have been disturbed by an earthquake. Afew yards higher up the hill was a large block ofstone, 5 feet 7 inches by 3 feet 4 inches. In thecentre of the block was a socket, 1 foot 10 inchesby 1 foot 3 inches square.About twenty minutes to the E. of the village, on theside of the hill, exactly facing the castle, I found tracesIN THE LEVANT. 201of an Hellenic burial-ground. Fragments of largejars were lying about, such as I saw dug up by Mr.Calvert in the Hellenic cemetery near the Dardanelles.At the distance of about a quarter of an hour eastward of this spot I came to a small ruined churchcalled Kyrà. Here are squared stones from someancient building, and columns lying in the church .In the gateway is a sepulchral inscription . Theground was strewn with fragments of pottery;whence this site is called Kerami. Advancing inthe same eastward direction, I came to two moreruined churches, Agios Georgios and Aprasu,between which is the foundation of a great ancientwall, running N. and S. down the hill. Near it lietwo colossal crouched lions half-buried in the ground.Their heads are broken off; their present length isabout 5 feet 9 inches; they are very coarsely sculptured out of the blue marble of the district, and areprobably from the entrance to a tomb. Inside thelittle church Aprasu is an Hellenic aqueduct, runningfrom E. to W. and broken open here. It is coveredwith large slabs well squared, and is lined withblocks of calcareous stone.One of the covering slabs measures 3 feet 8 inchesby 2 feet 7 inches in width by 13 inches in depth.The aqueduct appears to terminate in a small well atthe E. end of the church; but this well appearsto have been made in Christian times. In a vineyard below the aqueduct are many squared blocks,and the surface of the field is strewn with pottery.It is evident that some Hellenic city, not yet identified, stood on or near the site of Siana.202 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThis is a wild country; the women are all shepherdesses. Colnaghi, who had never seen a liveshepherdess before, was very much disappointedwhen he saw these gaunt creatures striding alongin great jack-boots, with drapery which appearedto him no better than a smock-frock, but in whichI discovered a grand Phidiac composition of folds.In the evening we had a dance in the open air; theelders and matrons all sat round a semicircular wall,some on the stone seat at the bottom, some on thetop ofthe wall. It was moonlight; a wood fire in thecentre of the dance cast its flickering light on thescene, which was most picturesque. I sat in themiddle on the chair of state, and the primate ofthe village did me the honour of bringing me hisown pipe, a particularly dirty one. The inhabitantswere very kind, hospitable people, full of friendshipand fleas.I was so fortunate as to meet with at Siana therare silver coin of Hidrieus , Prince of Caria, whichI purchased for twelve piasters, or rather more thantwo shillings . While staying here I visited someruins on the shore at a spot called Basilika, to theN.W. of Siana. Our road skirted the north side ofMount Akramytis, having Atabyron on the right.Thence we turned to the west, and came in sight ofthe sea. Descending towards the shore, we cameto a place called Stellio, where is a rock with threesquare apertures cut in it, probably tombs. A littlefurther on, we passed on the right the ruins of atower of Hellenic masonry, the W. side of whichmeasured 34 feet 10 inches, and the S. side 29 feetIN THE LEVANT. 20310 inches. This place is called Marmaroulia.Onour way we examined a hill called Agios Phokas,which is covered with brushwood. Ascending thishill, I found it fortified by a wall of polygonal masonry, within which were the foundations of anoblong cella or temple, 39 feet by 18 feet 8 inches.At the south end of this enclosure, a female statuelay as it had fallen, by the side of its base: ithas been about 10 feet high, and is sculpturedin white marble. The figure is draped to thefeet. The sculpture is in a good style, but toomuch destroyed to be worth removing: the armsare wanting, and the body is in two pieces. Severalsmaller fragments of sculpture were lying about.The base is 4 feet 2 inches by 3 feet 7 inches . Inthe northern part of the enclosure was a large block6 feet 3 inches long, and 2 feet inch wide, lyingparallel with the end walls. It has at one endoblong holes for clamps .On the W. side of the hill the wall of the Acropolis is an exceedingly fine specimen of polygonalmasonry, extending in length 100 feet: the presentheight is 8 feet 9 inches. The largest of the blocksin this wall measured 4 feet 7 inches by 4 feet 1 inch.On examining the masonry, I noticed that onseveral of the largest blocks the face of the stonehad been hatched with lines forming bands oflozenges, chevrons, and other patterns, in whichwere plain traces of red colour.69These ornaments were very similar to those whichoccur on the archaic Greek fictile ware, fragmentsof which have been found at Mycena and Tiryns,204 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESand which has been, therefore, referred with muchprobability to a remote antiquity.90On the east the fine polygonal masonry ceases,and the wall is built of rough unhewn stones.The summit of Agios Phokas commands an extensive view of the shore and adjacent islands. Thewhole coast is seen from Cape Monolithos toCastellos. On the right is a promontory calledYamurtos, behind which is Castellos; on the left,the promontory locally known as Armanistes, butcalled in the Admiralty Chart, Cape Monolitho.Basilika is situated on a low hill, separated fromAgios Phokas by a valley. The ruins here consistof the foundations of a number of houses built withsquare rough hewn blocks of Hellenic masonry.Ross considers these foundations as the remains ofa mediæval village built of ancient materials; asupposition which is not improbable. One of thesehouses measured 35 feet 3 inches by 38 feet 2 inches.The doorway was in width 4 feet 11 inches; it hadan upright stone jamb on either side . The masonryof these houses was very like that of the foundationswithin the fortress at Chigri, in the Troad. (Seeante, p. 129. ) I could not discover traces of anywall round these ruins.From Basilika we went to a place on the shoremarked Kamera in the Admiralty Chart. Here is aruined modern village. Below, on the shore, wasa square tower, which I did not examine.91From Kamera we retraced our steps to Siana bya different route nearer Akramytis, and passed bysome more Hellenic ruins on a hill called Campanis,IN THE LEVANT. 205on our left. Here were foundations of houses andwalls, and an ancient well. A little further on wepassed on our left a hill called Kemisalla, where arealso some Hellenic walls. From this spot the roadled straight to Marmaroulia, the spot already noticedwhen we branched off in going from Siana to AgiosPhokas. The N.E. end of Akramytis seen from thisroad presents a curious study for geologists; someof the strata being vertical, others twisted andcurled round like volutes.Having heard of some other ancient remains inthe neighbourhood of Siana, I determined to explorethem. At about an hour's distance to the N., nearthe foot of Mount Atabyron, is a place called Agros,where is an angle remaining from a peribolos ofHellenic masonry. One wall running N.E. andS.W. is continuous for 29 feet, and may be traced inthe same direction for 73 feet, where the corresponding angle has been carried away by mountaintorrents. The other walls of this enclosure mayalso be traced at intervals. The height of the wallat the angle is 12 feet; the blocks are about3 feet 9 inches by 1 foot 10 inches. There aretraces of an inner wall running parallel with theouter enclosure.From Agros, turning nearly east, we rode for halfan hour along the side of Atabyron, having Akramytis on our right, till we came to a ruined churchcalled Hepta Amartias. In the walls are squaredHellenic blocks, and a sepulchral cippus with festoons . Thence we proceeded to a hill called Castello, about an hour south of Hepta Amartias, where206 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESI noticed traces of several walls. An Hellenic hillfortress probably stood here.After these excursions we proceeded homewardsalong the skirts of Mount Atabyron, which herecomes down almost into the sea, bulging out intogreat buttresses and spurs, so as hardly to leaveroom for the road, which is cut in places out of thesolid rock. It is a barren, shapeless mountain onthis side, very much less picturesque than themountains of Mytilene, but exceeding them in itsheight, which, according to the Admiralty Chart, is4,068 feet. I regret that I had not time to ascendto the summit to see the interesting remains of thetemple of Zeus Atabyrios, which still exist there,and which are described by Hamilton, Ross, andGuérin.92 The ancient name of this mountainis now pronounced Atayros. We continued toclamber over the picturesque road, below whichdeep ravines thinly clad with pines ran down to thesea, till we came to Embonas, a village where isexcellent wine. It is curious that the name aubwv ismentioned by the ancients as a Rhodian word,denoting a particular kind of steep mountain-ascent,very applicable to the country of Embonas.98Close to Embonas, at a place called Koutzara, area number of squared Hellenic blocks lying near theruins of an old church. At the distance of rathermore than an hour to the North is an ancient wall ona hill called Kitala. A little to the N.W. of Embonasis Castellos, where is a castle on the shore, perchedon a steep rock. The village is a poor one. BetweenCastellos and Siana is a church called PanagiaIN THE LEVANT. 207Amarto, where I noticed a fragment of a Greekpainted vase. Between this church and the sea is asquare tower in ruins, built with mortar.After passing Embonas the coast gradually widens;the road passes through a country rather dischevelledby earthquakes, and covered with wheat; then intothe rich garden-like strip of coast, which extends withintervals of barrenness to Rhodes. Here the palmtree once more greeted our eyes in the landscape.We passed Villa Nova, where there is a stately oldcastle built by the Knights, and close to it a finefountain, where the ample shade of plane-trees invites the traveller to halt and rest. The fountain issupplied by an aqueduct cut in the native rock, withsquare apertures in the sides to admit air. Thenceweproceeded to Rhodes.Altogether I was very much pleased with this littleexpedition. The manners of the peasantry at Rhodesare very frank and obliging. The women have noneof the affected prudery which distinguishes the Greekwomen of the richer classes, nor is there anythingof the jealous reserve which makes the Greekbourgeoise into a mere female slave, who is orderedabout by her husband, but never recognized beforestrangers by any conjugal token.The Rhodian peasant does not fatigue his guestwith cumbrous hospitality as the Greek bourgeoisdoes; he does not poison him with rakee, clog himwith sweetmeats, cram him with pilaff, and sicken himwith narguilehs; he just lets him alone, and giveshim the best food he can find without any needlessapologies. In the morning he receives a small sum208 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESfor the board and lodging, and is grateful, instead ofasking his guest for British protection as the price ofa night's hospitality, which happened to me severaltimes in Mytilene. There is a feeling of mutualsatisfaction when you part with the peasant; thereis a feeling of mutual disappointment when you takeleave of the bourgeois; you think him not quite sogood a fellow as he seemed over his wine the nightbefore, because he has asked you to do somethingwhich it would be discreditable to grant; he, on thecontrary, grumbles in his heart at having wasted somuch good cheer on a Consul who is " not of theright sort. "In reference to the character and social conditionof the rural population of Rhodes, I ascertained thefollowing particulars.Most of the land in the island is in the hands ofpeasant proprietors. As each peasant generallyholds as much land as he can conveniently cultivatewith his own hands, and as the population is scantyin proportion to the extent of land capable ofcultivation, there are in most districts but few sparehands available as labourers for hire . Again, theproduce of the island is for the most part wheat.Richer products, such as silk, olive- oil, wine, tobacco,are not grown in sufficient quantities to create aclass of wealthy landowners, but are either consumed in the villages, or exchanged for foreigncommodities, such as coffee and sugar, imported bythe Jews and Frank merchants established in thetown of Rhodes. Thus the Rhodian peasant, fedand clothed for the most part by products grown onIN THE LEVANT. 209his own land, and forced to labour on in a cycle ofprimitive agricultural operations as in a treadmill ,never accumulates that surplus of profits by whichin the richer and more fertile islands trading andseafaring aspirations are fostered and developed.The amphibious race, half mariner, half agriculturist, who spend the summer in trading orpiratical ventures, and the winter in desultoryagriculture, or in lounging about the cafés of theGreek seaports, form only a very small part of thepopulation in the villages of Rhodes.This simple and contracted mode of existence hasits advantages and disadvantages. The Rhodianpeasant can seldom read or write; and I wasassured that, even if the villages could afford tomaintain schools, few parents would be willing togive up their children's services long enough toenable them to learn anything. There is, too, analmost total deficiency of medical art, except in thetown of Rhodes; whereas, in richer communitieslike Mytilene, schools are very generally to be foundin the villages, and here and there a doctor with anEuropean diploma.On the other hand, the Rhodian peasant has manyexcellent qualities , which, as he advances in civilization, will, perhaps, deteriorate. I have generallyfound them industrious, thrifty, gentle, and obligingin their intercourse both with strangers and withone another, and far more truthful and honest thanany Greeks I have ever had to deal with. Travellingis considered safe in every part of the island; andthough outlaws are to be seen sometimes in theP210 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmountains, thieves and bad characters never findin any Rhodian village that countenance and shelterwhich is accorded to them in many of the islands.Their small transactions among themselves aresettled with little or no litigation, and with less ofthose complex intrigues arising from the constantinterference of the rich and powerful with the courseof justice, which are the bane of society in theLevant. If there is no wealth, there is , on theother hand, no pauperism. After riding all throughthe length and breadth of the island, I cannot callto mind that I was ever solicited to give alms ,except by lepers.Of course, wherever there are peasant proprietors,land has a constant tendency to accumulate in fewerhands, as want induces the peasant to mortgagehis patrimony; and in Rhodes, as elsewhere in theLevant, small capitalists are not wanting, who, frompurely philanthropical motives, as one of themgravely assured me the other day, lend money athigh rates of interest.But the wants of the Rhodian peasant are verylimited on the one hand, and on the other,his power of parting with real property is veryrestricted, in consequence of its strict entail here,and elsewhere in the Archipelago, in the femaleline.94The priests in the Rhodian villages are generallymere clowns, tilling their land like the rest, andknowing just enough Greek to read the services oftheir church. They have, however, considerableinfluence, not as spiritual advisers and searchers ofIN THE LEVANT. 211"hearts in the confessionals, but as the ministers of aritual which alone can counteract the superstitiousterrors with which the sunny and joyous mind ofthe Rhodian peasant is from time to time overshadowed.In the course of my journeys, I have collectedthe following curious particulars in reference to thelocal superstitions and customs. They are firmbelievers in certain supernatural beings calledάvegades, anerades, and daíuoves, or dæmons.The anerades are female spirits, clad in white, whoappear to unlucky benighted travellers when crossingrivers.Their apparition portends speedy death to thehapless wight who sees them, unless a priest counteracts the omen by reading verses from the Scriptures.When a birth takes place, no person whatever isallowed to enter the house, except the midwife, tillthe child has been blest by a priest; and it iscustomary for forty days after the birth to closethe house-door at sunset, and never to open itafter that hour, for fear the anerades should enterand carry off the child.The dæmons are met with in the forests. I askeda peasant what they were like. He said that hebelieved them to have με συμπάθεια σας (the equivalent of, con rispetto parlato) , goat's legs and tails,and said they were like the figures painted on Greekvases. He admitted, however, that he had neverseen one himself. Ross points that the word vspó,which in the modern Greek still means " water,"is the root from which must be derived Nopeus and99P 2212 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESΝηρηίδες, of which ἀνεράδες seems a corruption. Thenotion that the apparition of the anerades portendsspeedy death may be derived from the fact that therivers are the places where dangerous fevers arecaught at night. The daíuoves seem to be a tradition of the old Greek satyrs. 95The evil eye, called here pár (a corruption ofiuμáτior) , is an object of much dread, the evil effectsof which may, however, be counteracted by a fumigation with burnt olive- wood, or by palm branchesgiven in church at Easter and blest by the priest.At funerals they break a pitcher of water over thegrave at the moment of interment. They also placeon the mouth of the dead person a piece of ancientGreek tile, on which the priest inscribes the mysticsign called pentalpha, and the words ' Inoous Xgioròsx . This is supposed to prevent the dead fromreturning to earth as vampires, the belief in whoseexistence is very general in the Turkish Archipelago.At Rhodes, the vampire is called xaτaxavás; atMytilene, Bgoxóλaxo. There is no readier or moreeffectual way of getting rid of an importunate ortiresome Mytileniote than to say to him, " May thevampire take you. " He immediately crosses himself,and withdraws.I was told, that once in Rhodes a dead womanreturned to earth in this unpleasant shape; uponwhich, the priest of her village laid on the groundone of the dead woman's shifts, over the neck ofwhich he walked, held up by two men, for fear thevampire should seize him.he read verses from theWhile in this position ,New Testament, till theIN THE LEVANT. 213shift swelled up and split. When this rent takesplace, the evil spirit is supposed to escape throughthe opening. In Mytilene, the bones of those whowill not lie quiet in their graves are transported toa small adjacent island, where they are reinterred .This is an effectual bar to all future vagaries, for thevampire cannot cross salt water.When, in digging a grave, bones from a previousinterment are discovered, they are washed in wineand then placed in a common receptacle for suchremains.At Easter, and their most important festivals ,a lighted lamp is placed in the tomb by the piouscare of relations. At stated intervals after a death,small comfits called kollyba are offered to every oneat the church door. These comfits are made ofwheat boiled in water and mixed with the seed ofpomegranates, sesame, nuts, almonds, and wild peas.These offerings are made at the successive intervalsof one, three, six, and nine months from the dateof the death, and on the last day of the year. "This takes place during the first year after thedeath; during each subsequent year the distributiononly takes place on the anniversary of the death.The three last-mentioned customs are, I believe, verygeneral among the Greeks.On the eve of St. John the Baptist's feast, a bonfire is made before the door of each house, overwhich all the people who pass by have to jump;they have also water thrown over them. This customis an evident symbol of the rite of Baptism; and theuse of fire seems to be an allusion to the words, —214 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES" He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost andwith fire ."Every Rhodian peasant on the day of his patronsaint makes five loaves, called Pentarthi, which hecuts into small pieces and offers in church for thebenefit of the poor. At a marriage, after drinkinga health, they fling the glass down behind them;if it does not break, it is a bad omen.Crossed knives are placed over the door of thehouse to which the bride is conducted, to keep offthe evil spirits.XVI.RHODES, June 20, 1853.I HAD lately an unexpected visit from my friendMr. Finlay, of Athens, the well-known author of the"History of the Byzantine Empire. " Just afterI had installed him in my house, we got an unexpected opportunity of making a trip to Scio, in aTurkish steamer going with despatches to theGovernor- General of the Archipelago, and so startedforthwith, accompanied by Mr. Alfred Biliotti. Asour steamer only made six knots an hour, we didnot reach Cos till the day after we had left Rhodes.Touching there for an hour, we then went on toScio, where we were most hospitably and kindlyentertained by the British vice-consul, M. Vedova.His account of Scio was not very encouraging.All its ancient glories seem to have departed. Tradethere was none; British ships or subjects none;IN THE LEVANT. 215business for the vice-consul none.fruit-trees, for which the island hadbrated, had been cut down by theThe luxuriantbeen so celeever to be remembered great frost two years ago, which furnishedmaterials for the despatches of all the consuls inthe Archipelago during a whole winter. It issupposed that such a frost had not been for fiftyyears, because it destroyed trees of that age.Scio has a rich level shore, out of which boldbleak mountains rise abruptly; but seen from thesea, it has not the beauty of Mytilene, from theabsence of olive-trees on the hill- sides .We went over the castle, of which the fortifications had a more modern character than those ofMytilene and Rhodes. I noticed a great number oflong brass guns like those at Rhodes, which doubtless belong to the period when this island wasoccupied by the Genoese. On one was the inscription, -CAPITAN. ANDRONICO DESPINOSA NATVRAL DE RODIMDLIII.I also noticed in the castle the pedestal of a statueto a Roman emperor. But no other trace of Greekantiquities was to be met with there.We went to see the Governor- General of theArchipelago, Ishmael Pasha, a nephew of the famousAli Pasha, of Jannina, and found him in a beautifulkiosk in the environs of Scio, surrounded by orangetrees and fountains. He is now making the roundof the islands, and begged me to report to him any216 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwrong doings which might fall under my observationin this tour. He makes profession of a wish toadminister his pashalick well; but, unfortunately, itis hardly possible for a Turkish governor to do morethan to wish to do his duty. Between the wish andits execution his agents are sure to interpose so manydifficulties that all honesty of purpose is thwarted.While I was with him, in came two Greek primatesof Scio, with many genufections and προσκυνήματα.We began talking about the island, and I asked thetwo primates why they did not make proper roadsand bridges in order to convey the produce of theinterior to the ports. The two venerable gentlemensaid that they thought that the roads which weregood enough for their ancestors were good enoughfor them; whereupon the Pasha asked whether Adaminvented steam and the electric telegraph, -a question which puzzled them considerably, and which, Ithought, was rather a creditable remark for a Turkto utter.The town of Scio is very Italian in the characterof its architecture, which has a solidity very rare inthe Levant. In the suburbs, the fine houses built bythe old merchants still stand in roofless and windowless desolation, just as the Turks left them after theGreek revolution, when Scio was utterly sacked.Up to that period its commerce was of greatimportance, and in the old capitulations madebetween the Porte and English monarchs Smyrnaand Scio are mentioned together as the two principalports where English trade was carried on in Turkey.We learn from a MS. in the Cotton collection in theIN THE LEVANT. 217British Museum," that Henry VIII. appointedcertain John Baptist Giustiniani his Consul in Scioat the time when it was still held by the Genoese.This ancient predecessor of M. Vedova seems tohave been somewhat wanting in zeal for the protection of English commerce, and His Majestytherefore administers to him a mild reprimand,enjoining more activity in the performance of hisduties for the future.At Scio I parted with Mr. Finlay and, not hearingof any antiquities in the villages , set sail in a Greekboat bound for Patmos with a cargo of Sciote dolciand other " notions." In fine weather a cruise inthe Archipelago in one of these small craft is verypleasant. All the cooking is managed by lightinga fire on the shingle which serves for ballast at thebottom of the boat. At night the same shingleserved as our bed, with a shaggy capote for a mattressand a carpet-bag for a pillow.It is at sea that the Greek appears in his mostgenial and agreeable aspect, provided always thatthe weather is fine. I noticed that the sailors had acurious way of calculating the hour, by measuringwith their hand the distance of the sun's disk fromthe horizon. Every finger's breadth, according totheir notion, represented a quarter of an hour ofdaylight. I suspect this is the true explanation ofthe phrase in Alcæus, πίνωμεν, δάκτυλος ἁμέρα,"Let us drink, there is still an inch of daylight.99The crew was a very merry one; they were allwhat the Greeks call Palikaria, or good fellows. Aswe got near Patmos, they grew nervous about218 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESpirates, as there is no part of the Archipelago moresuspected than these unfrequented and landlockedchannels, full of harbours and lurking-places. I hada sort of vague confidence in my little flag, andthought that the majesty of the name EnglishConsul would be sufficient to repel any attack, butfelt at the same time certain misgivings, as it is nowonly two years since the Smyrna brigands took theDutch Consul prisoner in his own garden, and madehim pay an immense ransom. However, all wentwell with us; and after a great deal of becalmingand rowing, in which I joined, to the great astonishment of the sailors, we got to Patmos.I had two objects in going to Patmos: first ,to see manuscripts in the monastery, as the collection has been a celebrated one; secondly, to gethold of a certain Greek captain, who was hidingin this island after having committed a barratry.One of his crew was an Ionian, whom I amdetaining at Rhodes till the captain is tried;hence, his capture is a matter of interest to me.I arrived at Patmos provided with a stern andperemptory letter from the Governor of the Archipelago, ordering the Patmiotes to give up thecaptain, and warning them that the Pasha wasperfectly aware that he was concealed somewhereamong them. Patmos, like all the small islands inthis part of the Archipelago, is governed by a Mudirand Demarchia, or corporation of three or four ofthe richest Greeks of the place, who, being therichest are said to be generally the most dishonest.If there are no Turks in the island, the Mudir is aIN THE LEVANT. 219mere symbolic representation of Turkish authority;the Greeks rule. Such is the case at Patmos,which is an island full of monks and pirates.My first step in landing in this den of thieveswas to call upon the only representative of consularauthority in the place, an old Hellenic consularagent, who had given information at Rhodes aboutthe barratry. The poor man was overjoyed to seeme, and declared that he never ventured to stirout of his house for fear of being assassinated onaccount of having denounced certain Patmiotes, astatement the truth of which I had no means ofascertaining, though such is the condition of someof these islands that it is not improbable. On mytelling him that I had a letter from the Governorto the Demarchia, he begged me, instead of callingon the Mudir as I had proposed, to remain in hisown house and summon the Demarchia into my presence there and hear the Pasha's letter. I thought,as Hotspur thought of Owen Glendower's spirits ,"but will they come? " However, I despatchedmy cavass from the port to the town, and summoned them in imperious style. Rather to mysurprise they all came through a broiling Junesun. I presented the Pasha's letter: it was read;the Mudir gave a start, and turned a little palewhen he heard the mandate; the Greeks preservedthat perfect self-possession which distinguishes thisrace when some great occasion calls forth theirenormous capacity for lying. When the letter wasfinished, the Mudir said never a word; but one ofthe Primates, a smooth-tongued gentleman, at once220 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdelivered an answer all ready- made.With manyTheprofessions of desire to obey the command of thePasha, he said that in this instance it was impossible to put his orders in execution, because the manin question, not being at Patmos, could not possiblybe sent, as the Pasha requested, to Rhodes. Allthis was so plausibly and logically worded that I wastaken quite aback, and said, " There is the Pasha'sletter, answer it as you think proper; he has beeninformed, and I have been informed, that the manis here; you say he is not. We shall know howto deal with you if you are deceiving us. "Greeks, not the least disconcerted, began to overpower me with civilities. On my proposing to goup to the town to see the monastery, they forthwith offered mules, and invited me to dine with them.Knowing what all this meant, I broke away veryunceremoniously from their escort, and managedto get up the steep ascent to the town about fiveminutes before them. In a case of this kind, thepeople who wish to mislead you never lose sightof you for a second during the day, for fear anybody else should get the opportunity of putting inan observation. My manœuvre of walking up thehill alone enabled the Mudir to get hold of Biliotti for a moment, when he whispered to him inTurkish, " The man is here, but I did not daresay so before the Demarchia. "When I got up to the town, I called on the Archbishop of Rhodes, who is now staying at Patmos,and found him in a curious old room, where weretwo or three faded pictures in the school of Cana-IN THE LEVANT. 221letto. I inquired how they came there, and wastold that there had once been a great trade betweenVenice and Patmos. The Archbishop received mewith open arms, and pronounced a magnificentéloge, in classical well-rounded phrases, on my philanthropy, my knowledge of ancient Greek, my lovefor archæology, and a variety of other merits, till ,at last overcome by his honeyed words, I began tosay to myself, " What a nice old gentleman thisarchbishop is; after all, perhaps, he is not quiteas bad as Mr. Kerr described him to be. Perhapsmy predecessor was somewhat too severe when hetold him to his face that he and all the otherbishops were a disgrace to the Greek Church; itrequires to study the manners of these people."Alas for my prepossession in his favour of thisvenerable hierarch. I did not then know, what Iwas told shortly afterwards at Calymnos, that thecaptain I was in quest of was at the moment of myvisit hiding in the Archbishop's house.When I left Patmos, I wrote to the GovernorGeneral, reporting all that I had seen and heard,and telling him, at the same time, that the peopleof Patmos set his authority at defiance, and that Ihoped and expected that he would put it to rights.If he is really in earnest, he will forthwith senda ship of war to bring away all the Demarchia toRhodes, and will keep them prisoners there till theconcealed captain is found; but as the Patmiotesare rich, there is still a chance for them. They canbuy the captain of the ship of war, who will then goback to Rhodes, with some lame story explaining why222 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEShe could not execute the Pasha's orders; or, iftheyhave a large command of money, they will buy theprotection of some great man at Constantinople, andthus thwart the Pasha in his endeavours to bringthem to justice.I have given this little anecdote more space in myletter than perhaps it deserves, in order to showthatmaladministration in Turkey is not exclusively confined to Turkish officials. In those islands of theTurkish Archipelago where the Greeks are allowedto administer their own affairs, they too often abusetheir municipal rights by protecting brigands, pirates,and every description of rogue. In such islands itis not so much the Pasha but the Greek Primatewho is looked on by the people as their oppressor.Iniquity, incorporated in the form of a Mejlis orDemarchia, is a many-headed monster; formerly, thewhole guilt of the administration rested on theTurkish governor, and the evil was removable whenever the Sultan thought proper to remove his headfrom his shoulders. Now, the Greek primates in thoseislands where the Greek population predominates setthe mandates of the Pasha at defiance, unless he backsthese mandates by measures not quite reconcilablewith the Tanzimat. The only certain result of anattempt to punish crime, is that the delinquent is thuscompelled to spend a large sum in purchasing protection from justice. Thus, probably, when the Demarchia of Patmos, the Director of the Quarantine there,and the Archbishop of Rhodes, have sent in theirlittle accounts, " the captain will have to disgorgenearly the whole of his booty acquired through thebarratry.IN THE LEVANT. 223I was much disappointed with the MSS. atPatmos. M. Guérin, the author of the memoir onRhodes already cited, has recently visited the monastery, and made a catalogue of the library. I readthrough this list and called for all the classical MSS. ,and was shown only four, of no great antiquity andin bad condition. I found a Greek lexicon by someunknown Byzantine scholar.98 In the fly-leaf wasa curious note, stating that the people of Cyrenededicated a statue of their king, Battus, holding inhis hand the silphium, a plant which supplied thestaple of their commerce, and which is representedon the coins of Cyrene.This note being evidently an extract from someancient author, I was at first in hopes that it wasunedited; but find that it is given in the Scholiast tothe Plutus of Aristophanes, 1. 925.I also noticed a MS. of Sophocles, on thin parchment, containing only the Ajax and Electra, withoccasional interlinear glosses in red ink; a DiodorusSiculus, on parchment, of the 15th century, wantingbeginning and end; and a Libanius, on paper, ofthe 15th century, wanting beginning, and in badcondition.The library is rich in Biblical and Patristic MSS . ,many of which have fine illuminations . Among thesemay be specially mentioned the Book of Job, probably of the 7th or 8th century, written in uncialcharacters; some splendidly-illuminated copies of theGospels from the 10th to the 12th century; and acopy of Origen on the Pentateuch and Prophets, ofthe 9th century. There is here also a fine collection of224 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbulls granted by Byzantine emperors, ranging fromthe end of the 11th century to the taking of Constantinople, A.D. 1453, which were shown to Ross,but which I did not see.9999100That quaint old traveller Sandys, describing themonks at Patmos in the year 1610, stigmatizes themas " ignorant of letters , studious for their bellies, andignominiously lazy, unless some few that give themselves to navigation, and become indifferent goodpilots . I cannot say that the lapse of more thantwo centuries has added much to their erudition,though it may have somewhat abated their love ofgood cheer, now unknown in Patmos. They readthe most crabbed abbreviations in the MSS. withfacility, ―more than this I cannot say for theirlearning; there was not one of them that had ever discovered that their Sophocles contains only two plays.is veryThe monastery of Patmos is an ecclesiastical fortress, built at a period when the monks dreaded piratesinstead of protecting them. It is consequently verystrong, towering far above the town, and overlookingthe landlocked harbours below; the scenerywild and has a treeless and desolate beauty, unlikethat of any other Greek island which I have seen.The monastery is built in a succession of terraceswith stone roofs , and is raised to a great height; thesummit of the battlements commands an extensiveview. In this panorama we saw, on the mainland, arocky range of mountains above Scala Nova. Allround the horizon seaward was a succession ofislands , -66' Spread far amid the melancholy main."IN THE LEVANT. 225I distinguished Samos, Fourmi, Nicaria, Naxos,Mykonos, Tenos (hardly visible) , Levitha, Stampalia,Cos, Calymnos, Leros, Lepso .Half- way down the hill is the Monastery of theApocalypse, where St. John is supposed to havewritten the Revelations. Here is a natural cavern,in which a church has been built in two compartments. In one of these is a rent in the rock, where,according to the local tradition, the earthquakesplit it while St. John was praying. The voicewhich he heard in his vision is said to have issuedfrom this rent. I was also shown the hole in therock whence he hung during his prayer. At theeast end was a rude picture representing the scenedescribed at the beginning of the Revelations, withthe printed text of the first chapter pasted at theside to explain the picture .The monastery of Patmos was founded in the11th century by a holy man named Christodulos,from Nicæa, in Bithynia.The golden bull of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, by which the island of Patmos is granted toChristodulos, is still preserved in the monastery,and bears date A.D. 1080.It would appear from the legend of the saint, thathe founded his monastery on the site of a templeof Artemis, whose statue he took care to destroy onhis arrival. From an interesting but mutilatedinscription at Patmos, published by Ross, we learnthat this deity was the Scythian or Tauric Artemis.In the original bull, granted by Alexius Comnenus,no women were allowed to reside on the island: butQ226 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESit was found necessary in a short time to relaxthese hard conditions.101 At present, on the contrary, the male population being all either monksor seafaring men, the destitution of the ladies isnearly as great as that of the wives of the Greekwarriors during the Trojan war.The island is verybarren, and nourishes nothing but goats. Thewomen maintain themselves by knitting stockings.Their costume is very curious; and they seem tobe a different race from the other islanders in theSporades. They wear very quaint high headdresses.From Patmos we went to Calymnos, the ancientCalymna, a barren rocky island, the inhabitants ofwhich maintain themselves principally by spongediving. Here I purchased a quantity of small silvercoins, which seem to have been struck at Miletus, buthave been attributed to Hekatomnos, Prince of Caria,because the letters EKA appear on the largerspecimens. I was told that they were found ata place called Gherelli, three hours to the northof Budrum.102The primates of Calymnos received me verykindly, and showed me all the inscriptions and otherantiquities known to them.We visited the church of Christos, built on thesite and with the ruins of the Temple of Apollo .On the shore I was shown a stelé with a decreeIN THE LEVANT. 227of the people of Calymna in honour of the peopleof Iassos, in Caria. This interesting document wasdestined to be built into a church now erecting.103In a garden called Blyko, near the harbour, werea number of columns and the angle of a cornice,recently dug up. On three sides of this cornicewere inscribed grants of freedom to certain slavesby their masters. These documents were made out inthe name of the Stephanephoros, a local magistrate.10Our caique went before the wind from Calymnosto Cos in two hours and a half. The distance Iwas told was twenty-five miles, and the pace verygood for a caique. The scenery all round us wasvery picturesque. On every side were jaggedmountain-lines which seemed to have been convulsed into fantastic forms by some primeval force.Behind us were some small islands near Leros , onour right Cos, on our left a stern headland nearMyndos [ Gumischlu ] , and straight ahead the highmountain-ridge which terminates in Cape Crio.This wild scenery is far more impressive when seenfrom a caique than from the deck of a steamer.When we got to Cos, the wind blew so strongthat our anchor would not hold, and we weredriven right across the bows of a larger vessel,and nearly impaled on her bowsprit. At present,the anchorage is in an open road. In antiquitythere was here a snug little harbour, which hasbeen gradually filled up by sheer neglect, as isthe case with many other ports in the Archipelago.I found here a very intelligent Greek merchant,named Demetri Platanista, who had a small collecQ 2228 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStion of inscriptions and fragments of sculpture in hishouse. One of these inscriptions is a decree of thepeople of Cos in reference to arbitrators whom theyhad invited from some neighbouring city to decidematters in litigation, according to a frequent practiceamong the ancient republics. The name of one ofthe Egyptian Ptolemies appears in this inscription,probably that of Philadelphus, who was born atCos. Another fragment of an inscription containspart of a list of contributors to some public loan .Among the fragments of sculpture was the rightthigh of a statuette of Perseus, against which thehead of Medusa rests, grasped by the hair in hisright hand. This is in a very good style. Therewas also the torso of a Venus tying her sandal,similar to that in the British Museum.105I purchased at Cos a round buckler of marble14 inches in diameter, with a hole behind, by whichit has been fastened by an iron pin, probably tothe wall of a temple. It is inscribed " Hegesikrates,the son of Hegesikrates, (dedicates this) to the godswho led the army. " I also purchased the torso of astatuette of an hermaphrodite, of Parian marble, andin a good style. But my great prize was a silvercoin of Termera, in Caria, the only one known of thistown.ROn one side is a kneeling figure of Herakles, withthe letters TYMNO. On the reverse, the legendIN THE LEVANT. 229TEPMEPIKON round a lion's head. The style israther archaic. Termera was a fortress of Cariaopposite to Cos; and there can be little doubt thatthe isolated rock of Chifoot Kalessy represents itssite . Herodotus mentions a certain Histiaios, tyrantof Termera, who was the son of Tymnos. It isprobable that the letters TYMNO on the coin arethe name of a second Tymnos, son of this Histiaios.Termera was originally occupied by the Leleges,who thence made piratical incursions into the islandof Cos.106 The coin which I was so fortunate as toacquire, was found by a Calymniote diver on thecoast opposite to Cos, and passed from his hands.into those of an Ionian merchant, who was soobliging to part with it to me for a very reasonablesum, " to please his Consul, " as he said.We visited the celebrated fountain of Burinna,distant an hour and a half west of Cos. An ancientaqueduct descends from this source to the town.The fountain issues in a copious stream from arock. A circular vaulted chamber, still called by itsancient name, Tholos, is built over it. This chamberis 9 feet 4 inches in diameter, and is built of largesquared blocks, without mortar. The vault is Egyptian, like that of the Treasury at Mycenae, the stoneslaid in horizontal courses, advancing one beyondthe other, and having their inner faces curved. Ithas a circular aperture at the top to admit light,which has been restored with mortar. One of thelargest of the blocks was in length 3 feet 4 inchesby 1 foot 6 inches.Over the aperture of the tholos, outside, is a large230 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESsquare stone pierced in the centre. A trap-doorwas anciently fitted to this stone, as is seen by theholes for the hinges, made on two opposite sides.107The tholos communicates with the aqueduct througha doorway 6 feet high, formed by an Egyptian vaultof advancing stones, between which is a singlewedge- shaped stone.The gallery runs on 17 feet to a second doorway,similar to the first. Through this first length theroof is similar to that of the doorways. From thesecond doorway the passage takes a bend, and runsfor 15 feet 5 inches with the same structure of roof;the walls are ancient, but restored with mortar.From the distance of 15 feet 5 inches onwards for48 feet, the gallery is built of smaller blocks, andwith a regular arch. From this point to the end28 feet, the roof is formed by a single horizontalstone.The tholos communicates with the open air abouthalf-way up its height by a second gallery, roofedwith single blocks, which probably served for ventilation. This fountain seems to be the one mentioned by Theocritus, which, according to a legend,was discovered by Chalcon, king of Cos.10s Thetholos reminded me of the Tullianum near the Capitolat Rome, 109 and from the style of the masonry isprobably of high antiquity.I arrived in this island just in time to lay handson an Ionian thief, immediately after he had beencaught in a shop, with a false key in one hand and abundle of goods in the other. Cos being withinmy consular district, I exercised summary jurisdic-IN THE LEVANT. 231tion on this offender, and having convicted him onthe evidence of two credible witnesses, a rare felicityin a Turkish trial, put him into my caique, and carriedhim off prisoner to Rhodes. The Caimacam of Cos,an old Janissary, was very anxious to intercede forhim, and held me a long discourse on the frailty ofhumanity generally. I inquired why the Turk tooksuch an interest in the case, as the prisoner was toopoor to buy him, and was told that he was the bitterenemy of the prosecutor!The part of the Archipelago from which I havejust returned has as yet been but little explored. Itlies off the great high road of steamers and touriststo Constantinople. The manners of the people havebeen far less affected by European influence than inislands like Mytilene, or Scio, which have maintaineda more constant intercourse with Smyrna. For thesame reason the Sporades appear to promise a veryproductive field for archæological research.On my return to Rhodes, I found everybody fullof warlike ideas. To-morrow's post may bring usdecisive news. There is a general presentiment thatthis will be a year pregnant with mighty events forTurkey. The Turks show great resolution outwardly; but we live in an atmosphere of fear andexpectancy; the word Russia is in every Turk'sheart and on every European's lips.232 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESXVII.RHODES, August 5, 1853.I HAVE just returned from a little excursion withBlunt across the centre of the island. Our firsthalting-place was Aphandu, on the road to Lindos,four hours distant from Rhodes. Here I purchaseda small slab, with a figure on horseback in low relief.This appears to have been a sepulchral monument.The sculpture is coarse; the material, the stone ofthe country.After riding three hours further, we got to Mállona,where we turned inland to the S.W., in the directionof Aláerma. After about an hour we ascended fromthe plain into a pine forest, which extends for threedays' journey into the centre of the island: wearrived at Aláerma in four hours. This is a smalland somewhat barbarous village, where we couldget nothing to eat but venison dried in the sun instrips or jerked. The fallow deer, called by theGreeks λάφι, the corruption of ἐλάφιον, ranges wildthrough the pine forests of Rhodes, and many stagsare killed in this district. The inhabitants maintainthemselves by cultivating corn.From Aláerma we went to Apollona, distant fourand a half hours. The greater part of the road laythrough a pine forest. At the distance of an hourfrom Aláerma is an old church called Agia Marina,in which I found a large cube of marble from anIN THE LEVANT. 233Hellenic building. From the size of this block, itmay be inferred that it was not brought from adistance. An hour further is another old church, —Agios Georgios .Apollona is pleasantly situated in a valley, withabundance of water and fruit-trees. It has an oldcastle, built by the Knights.In the churchyard is a Greek inscription on asepulchral cippus, and in the church I noticed severalsquared blocks of Hellenic masonry. In this villageI purchased five Rhodian silver coins, with theradiated head of the Sun, one of which, for beautyand preservation, is superior to any of this type inthe British Museum. While at Apollona I exploredthe adjacent villages of Platanià and Arkiboli, bothpicturesquely situated among the mountains.found no antiquities in either of them.IWe then went to Fundokli, distant one hour tothe N.E. of Apollona. Our road crossed a mountainridge, on descending which the views en route wereexceedingly picturesque, stretching over ravines andbroken ground to the sea opposite Syme. Fundoklihas a beautiful fountain embosomed in plane-trees,and a ruined Byzantine monastery. In this part of theforest the pine timber is larger than that in the firstpart of our route. At the distance of a quarter ofan hour from Fundokli is Demelià, where I foundthe ruins of a small castle, and an escutcheon ofthe Knights over the church door, but no antiquities.From Demeliù we went to Salakko, a pretty villageat the foot of Mount Elias, through which a fresh234 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmountain brook runs even in the heat of summer.Here may be seen, in the same landscape, theorange-tree and palm-tree above the village, andhigher up the mountains the stone-pine. There is asmall castle of the Knights here, with the arms ofEmeri d'Amboise, quarterly with those of the Order.The mountain Agios Elias is 2,620 feet in heightaccording to the chart. On its north-east side is alittle chapel, dedicated to the saint, containing noancient remains, but commanding a picturesque view,with Syme inthe distance. The ground at the base ofthe mountain on this side is furrowed and channelledevery direction by water- courses and landslips.inI was surprised to find this lonely chapel full ofmural paintings; and on inquiring by whom they wereexecuted, was told by one John of Syme. At thepresent day poor architects and painters educated inGreek monasteries pass from island to island for thepurpose of constructing or beautifying the churches.Such itinerant artists remind one of the Freemasonsof Europe in the Middle Ages.Half an hour from Salakko, on the road toEmbona, is a place called Kappi, where the cultivated arable land terminates at the foot of MountElias. Here is a sarcophagus hewn out of the nativerock, 8 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, the sides 1 foot3 inches, the ends 7 inches in thickness. At the twoends the sarcophagus stands on steps cut out of thenative rock. It has been broken open at the ends.At a distance of an hour and a half from Salakko,on the same road, is a place called Spées. Here isa fountain with some large square blocks, evidentlyIN THE LEVANT. 235from an Hellenic building. Close by are the remainsof a Greek aqueduct. A ruined church here, calledAgia Eirene, is built with squared blocks.fields are strewn with fragments of pottery.TheFrom Salakko we turned homeward to Kalavardaon the northern coast. On the road to this place Inoticed an old tower, built by the Knights, by theside of a water-mill. This place is called Myrtona.It is distant half an hour from Kalavarda. A littlebefore arriving at this village we passed on the leftan old ruined church containing slabs of Hellenicmarble, but no inscriptions.At Kalavarda I noticed the process by which cottonis converted into flocks. This is done with a largebow (Togάp , ) a piece of reed, virga, and a woodeninstrument like a reel ( ayoud ) . The process iscalled τοξεύειν.The cotton is placed on the reed and laid horizontally at right angles to the bow, the string ofwhich is then struck with the λayout, and theparticles of cotton detached by the vibrations of thestring are drawn together so as to form a looserope, which is wound off on the distaff.In this village I was much interested by findinga number of Greek fictile vases in the peasants'houses. These vases were of various styles.Among them were several platters, pinakes, of avery early period, with geometrical patterns paintedin brown on a pale ground.This kind of ware has been found in the tombs ofAthens, Melos, and other parts of Greece, and isthought to be of very remote antiquity; the more so236 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESas the sites of Mycena and Tiryns are strewn with it.110I also found at Kalavarda several jugs, amphora,and oinochoc, on which were painted black figureson a red ground, or red figures on a black ground.None of these designs were remarkable for beauty ofdrawing or excellence of fabric, but mostly specimensof the later period of the art . The clay seemedrather thick and heavy. The peasants also showedme some small terra- cotta figures. On inquiry Iwas told that all these objects were found in tombsnear the village. The inhabitants, fearing probablyinterference on the part of the Turkish authorities,declined to show the site where these tombs werefound; but I was taken by my muleteer Panga to aplace on the shore called Agios Minas, distant threequarters of an hour from Kalavarda.Here is a medieval tower, at the foot of whichare the remains of a wall built with cement, whichruns out into the sea. On the shore here I foundthree handles of Greek unpainted diote, on whichmagistrates' names are stamped.Between this spot and Kalavarda, the fields alongthe shore are strewn with fragments of pottery, andin several places are traces of tombs. In one spotI found the fragments of a Rhodian diota, whichhad apparently been displaced from a tomb by atorrent rushing down from the hill. The handle ofthis diota was also inscribed with a magistrate'sname. This ground would probably repay excavation.By the skilful mediation of Panga, I succeeded inpurchasing the vases I had seen at Kalavarda, andIN THE LEVANT. 237on arriving at Fanes, the next village on myway home, I found another little collection ofobjects found in tombs. Among these were twoshallow two- handled cups, of the best period offictile art, one of which was inscribed with thewords xaipe χαῖρε xal πίεis,, " Rejoice and drink; " theother had black figures on a red ground. I alsoobtained a small bottle of variegated glass, and somecurious leaden glands such as were used by slingers,and which were each inscribed with a name. Theyform a curious illustration of the well-known storyof the slinger who is said to have inscribed thewords " to Philip's right eye " on a missile whichwas afterwards accurately delivered to its address.On my enquiring where these objects were found,I was taken by a peasant to a place a short distancefrom Fanes, where I saw a large extent of groundrecently cleared from the forest, strewn with fragments of painted vases and terra- cotta figures overan extent of several acres. These remains had evidently been thrown up by the plough. The vasesI had purchased at Fanes were found, according tomy guide, in a built tomb on this site. I succeededin purchasing this second collection of antiquities fora small sum, and packing them on a mule in twolarge panniers, started very early in the morningfor Rhodes, very well pleased with the acquisitionwhich I had made, and looking forward to furtherand more important discoveries on the sites whichI had thus accidentally stumbled on. My goldenvisions were suddenly arrested, like those of the oldwoman with the basket of eggs, by a crashing sound238 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbehind. The mule which carried the panniers hadfallen in the dry bed of a torrent; but I was happyto find that my treasures had been so well packedthat nothing was broken.From Kalavarda homewards, the landscape alongthe shore resumes the same verdant and luxuriantcharacter as in the environs of Rhodes. At Theologos,now pronounced Tholóos, I purchased a fragment ofan inscription from the temple of Apollo Erethimios,the site of which Ross identified by excavation here.The spot which he explored is in the plain, at thedistance of about eight minutes' walk from thevillage. In the church here is an inscription giving alist of the priests of Apollo Erethimios, and in frontof the church a square block of blue marble inscribedwith a similar list . The name Erethimios is onlyanother form of Erysibios, "the averter of mildew, "corresponding with the Latin deity Robigus.¹¹¹At Villa Nova we made a halt, and I examinedsome Hellenic remains on the shore below thetown. Lying here on the sand were great quantities of the inscribed handles of Rhodian diote,similar to those found by Mr. Stoddart at Alexandria, and published by him in the Transactions ofthe Royal Society of Literature.112 The traces ofHellenic remains extended for some hundred yards.along the shore. Over the door of a church recentlybuilt in this village part of a sepulchral relief is letinto the wall. This represents a draped middle-agedfigure, seated . In front stands a youthful malefigure; behind, another figure. The legs only ofthese figures remain. Below is an enriched moulding.IN THE LEVANT. 239The sculpture seems of the Roman period, and isexecuted in white marble. It was found in a fieldnear the church.113Between Villa Nova and Trianda is the village ofKremastò, where there is a castle built by theKnights with the arms of the Grand Master Fabriziodel Carretto. Here is a fine new church with a spaciouscourtyard, and small rooms all round it for the reception of visitors at the great feast or Panegyris, as atZambika. (See ante, p. 183. ) The interior of thechurch is richly decorated in the gaudy style whichthe Greeks are so fond of in their modern churches.At the distance of about five minutes from Kremastò,on the road to Rhodes, I noticed on the left severalfragments of columns of a late period, which probablymark the site of an ancient church.As far as I have yet seen, Rhodes is very inferiorin scenery to Mytilene. The mountains are lumpishin form. The pine forests are much disfigured byclearings and thinnings; the peasants burn patcheshere and there, and sow corn. The cultivation inthe more mountainous and central parts of the islandis very rude, andthe population scanty, but comfortablylodged, clothed, and fed. Here and there the barrenness of the district is relieved by a little verdure,where abundance of water has produced a luxuriantgrowth of fig and other fruit-trees. During thisjourney we saw great numbers of red- legged partridges; they ran on before us, and would not get upwithout being actually fired into. I saw sometimespacks of about sixty birds get up in a cloud.. Thepeasants here never fire at them on the wing, but240 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESshoot them as Gordon Cumming did his lions, whilethey are drinking at a brook.XVIII.RHODES, August 24, 1853.A SHORT time ago an Ionian at Cos having beenmaltreated by some sailors of a Turkish brig ofwar, applied to me for redress. The assault was anaggravated one; for one of the officers in commandof the brig, on being appealed to, told the Ionianthat he had better be quiet, or that on some futureoccasion the sailors might take his life. I sent a statement of the case to the Caimacam of Cos, to whichI got no answer. In the mean time H.M.S. " Sampson," commanded by Captain Lewis Jones, happenedvery conveniently to look in at Rhodes on her wayup from Syria, and I was thus enabled to pay a visitto Cos unannounced. Great was the surprise anddismay of the Turkish officials at Cos at my suddenapparition in an English war steamer, for the Caimacam had purposely delayed answering my complaint till the Turkish brig whose sailors wereaccused had sailed for Samos; and she was actuallygetting under weigh at the very moment when wecame in.The case of the Ionian was examined before theMejlis in the presence of Captain Jones andmyself. My client's evidence was somewhat slender,IN THE LEVANT. 241and the Turkish officer would have probably beenacquitted had it not been for the stupid manner inwhich he contradicted his own statements. Thedexterity with which these contradictions wereelicited by Blunt, acting as a dragoman, greatlyamused Captain Jones, who, up to a certain point inthe trial, had had a professional sympathy for theTurkish officer, the more so as the case was tried bycivilians .We exacted ample satisfaction . Pistol ate his leek,though with many wry faces; and the Caimacam,after all was over, paid us a visit on board the" Sampson, " gazing with a stupid terror and feignedadmiration at the massive 68-pounders on the deck,one of which was quite enough to annihilate histumbledown whitewashed fortress." Tell the captain, " said he, when he took hisleave, " that I have gained this day a real friend. Mayour friendship be as firm a union as that of the nailwith the flesh; " holding up a very ugly thumb as anillustration of this oriental metaphor.After redressing the wrongs of the Ionian, to thegreat satisfaction of the Christian population, I tookleave of my kind and hospitable host, Captain Jones,who left with the " Sampson to rejoin the fleet atBesika Bay. We then made a little tour of four daysin Cos, riding through the island from east to westalong the north shore opposite Calymnos. Cos istraversed throughout its whole length by a chain ofmountains, interrupted only in the part oppositeNisyros . This chain, the ancient Oromedon, calledalso by Pliny Prion, runs so near the southernR242 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES.shore as to leave on the northern coast a considerable space of plain in some places. Some of thisland is devoted to the cultivation of the small vinefrom which raisins are made, which Cos exports inconsiderable quantities, but not of very fine quality.There is also a good deal of rich arable land not halfcultivated, but capable of producing large crops ofgrain. The island is very much depopulated, andhas only four villages besides the principal town.The first day we rode as far as Pyli, distant aboutthree hours from the town of Cos. After passingthrough the gardens in the environs, we traversed anarrow strip of plain lying at the foot of the barrencentral range of mountains. This plain is plantedwith vineyards. At a ruined church, called AgiosPantalemos , distant about an hour and a half fromthe town, I copied two sepulchral inscriptions . Onour left, we passed the village of Asphendu, whichlies under the mountain-range, and on our rightsome salt-works on the sea- shore, which here, aselsewhere in Turkey, are a great cause of malaria.At Pyli is a very interesting Greek tomb, consistingat present of a chamber rather more than 18 feetlong, and covered over with a horizontal vault .Its height is 9 feet 8 inches . In each side aresix oblong recesses or thecæ, each of which appears to have been closed by a door, as a pieceof iron has been inserted in the architrave.stone of which this tomb is built is a travertine.One of the blocks in the roof is nearly 8 feet long.Over the tomb is a little church called Stavro, in thewalls of which a number of fragments of Ionic archiTheIN THE LEVANT. 243tecture of a good period are inserted . Among theseare two pieces of cornice, each 6 feet long and about6 inches deep. It is evident that these architecturalremains originally belonged to the external façade ofthe tomb. In this church is an interesting inscription114 which tells us that this monument commemorates a certain Charmylos, and makes mention of atemenos round it, with gardens and small temples(oixía), dedicated to the hero Charmylos and thetwelve gods .According to Ross, this tomb is still called ' otùXapuun . I could not, however, learn whether thisname had been handed down by tradition from thetime of the ancients , or whether it had not beenrather suggested at some recent period by thediscovery of the inscription in the church. Thename Charmylos occurs in another inscription atCos. This monument is a very interesting exampleof the class of architectural tombs which wereerected in the Macedonian period. It serves nowas a sheep- pen. At Pyli is a castle placed on anearly inaccessible rock. I tried to scale it, andmet a hare in so very narrow and steep a place, thatfearing he would trip me up, I drew up respectfullyto let him pass. Below the castle is the village ofPalaio Pyli, now utterly deserted, the walls of thehouses still standing in roofless desolation. Themodern village is scattered about. I found but fewinscriptions here. From Pyli we went to Antimachia. The country between these two villages isrich, but only partially cultivated. Indian corn isprincipally grown here.R 2244 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES99115Antimachia is another small and scattered village.Here, in a church called Proskynema, I found aninscription behind the altar, which commemoratedthe erection of a statue to a gymnasiarch, AureliusAristaichnos; another inscription found here, published by Ross, records a decree of a religious fraternity, who celebrated the rites of Zeus Hyetios, -"the rain-bringing Jupiter,' a deity who must havebeen held in peculiar esteem in this district , fromits extreme dryness. We learn from Plutarch thatHerakles was worshipped with peculiar rites atAntimachia, in accordance with a local myth, bywhich he was supposed to have landed here on hisreturn from Troy; and in a curious inscription foundin the town of Cos, mention is made of this worship,and of a piece of land (temenos) set apart by bequestfor the endowment of his priests, whose dignity washereditary in a particular family.¹116In the vestibule of the church of Panagia, I founda sepulchral cippus sculptured in relief, with festoonshanging from bulls' heads. One of the bulls' headsis placed between a gryphon on the left and a lionon the right; each with his right forepaw raised.In this vestibule is also the capital of an Ioniccolumn. In the village I purchased a small Greekvase with ornaments painted in crimson, of a creamcoloured ground, but without incised lines, in a veryarchaic style. This must have been found in atomb, but I could not get the peasants to indicatethe spot.At about an hour's distance from Antimachia, is aplace on the south- eastern shore, where Ross placesIN THE LEVANT. 245Halasarna. Near this site is a village called Cardamyla, in the church of which, called Agia Anargyre,is an inscription dedicated by a priest of Apollo. Icould not hear of any village called Apostrophe, asmarked in Ross's map.Near Antimachia is the church of Christos Moscopianos, in a field close by which are a quantity ofblocks of marble, and fragments of columns, evidently from some temple, and others in the wall ofthe church itself.From Antimachia we went to Kephalas. Betweenthese two points the great mountain- ridge of Cosis interrupted, as if by some natural convulsion.Just opposite this isthmus lies Nisyros, whichseems as if it had been plucked up by the roots,and flung out of the mountain-chain into the sea,its formation so completely corresponds with thegeneral character of the mountain- ridge of Cos.Hence the ancients, who never lost an opportunityof turning a physical phenomenon into myth,said, or rather sang, that Nisyros was broken offfrom Cos by Neptune. Seeing the island itself, Iwas reminded of a Greek vase on which Poseidon isrepresented upheaving the whole island of Nisyrosin his arms to throw at the giant Polybotes. Inthis design, on the mass of rock which representsthe uplifted island, a goat, a serpent, a shell, andother marine emblems are delineated, as symbolsrespectively of the mountain, lowlands, and thecoast.118The isthmus between Antimachia and Kephalasis exceedingly barren, with hardly any vegetation246 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESexcept the aloe, which I found growing in rows ofthree or four, like young fir- trees, with immenseflowering-stems. There is much conglomerate rockand drift sand on the surface. Kephalas is picturesquely placed on a rocky hill, with a ruined castle,in the walls of which I noticed escutcheons of theKnights of St. John. At a few minutes' distancefrom the village are the ruins of a Greek Acropolis,which, as we now knowfrom inscriptions, was calledIsthmos. Here is a most interesting ruin, a fragment of a Greek temple, which now forms partof the church of Panagia Palatiani. The south wallof the cella still remains, forming a kind of vestibuleto the west of the actual church. This wall is16 feet long and 6 feet high. At its W. extremityis a doorway 2 feet 5 inches wide: the largest ofthe blocks of which it is composed are 4 feet5 inches long and 2 feet 7 inches deep: the material is trachyte. Within this vestibule is a kind oftable formed of ancient blocks put together by thebuilders of the church, which is now called Tpáлesα.On this " table, " at the annual feast of the saint,the people hold their panegyris. Ross noticed asimilar custom in the island of Pholegandros, and inboth places it is no doubt a relic of Paganism. Froma half-defaced inscription in the pavement of thechurch, he ascertained that the temple was dedicatedto a Roman empress, perhaps Livia, in the characterof Demeter. The sides of the rocky hill on which thischurch stands, are cultivated in terraces supported bywalls, in and about which are many fragments of thetemple, pieces of architrave, triglyphs, and drumsIN THE LEVANT. 247of columns; from which it appears that it was of theDoric order. On the shore, near Palatia, was theancient harbour.A number of inscriptions have been copied atKephalas, in which the ancient name of this city,Isthmos, occurs several times. This name has notbeen noticed, as far as I know, by any ancientauthor. On a base copied by Ross is a dedicationon one side to the emperor Vespasian, and on theother to one Satyros, son of Themistocles, a physician, whom the Isthmiotes honoured with a bronzestatue and a crown of the value of fifty gold pieces.The decrees are made out in the name of the senateand people.119After crossing the dry bed of a torrent, we cameto a vineyard, in which many pieces of marble hadbeen dug up, but destroyed to make lime by thepeasants. The country about Kephalas producesmuch corn, which is kept in magazines cut inthe native rock, and entered by a hole fromthe top. Magazines of this kind were commonin antiquity.120 The population here is entirelyagricultural, poor, and dirty in their habits. Wecame home by Asphendu, a picturesque villagesituated high up on the side of Mount Prion. It istraversed by ravines, and sheltered by numbers oftrees and shrubs. The inhabitants are a race withmore courage than is generally found in the Greekislands. Lately, on building a new church, theyhoisted a flag with a picture of the Resurrection ,which the Governor of Cos ordered them to takedown. They set his order at defiance.248 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESThe Turks have lately been endeavouring to cleanout the ancient harbour of Cos by dredging, and havefound a colossal hand, probably from the statue ofsome Roman emperor, whose body may still lie embedded in the mud. I obtained during this visit anunedited inscription, containing a mention of Halasarna, which is placed by Ross on the S.E. shore ofthe island. An embassy to some king, probably oneof the Ptolemies, is also mentioned . This inscriptionwas presented to me by the Ionian for whom wehad obtained redress from the Turkish captain .I also copied an inscription in the possession of M.Demetri Phatanista, which contains the commencement of a letter from the Emperor Tiberius tothe people of Cos, bearing date A.D. 15, the yearof his accession.muchthere.pompOur departure from Cos was not attended with soand circ*mstance as marked our arrivalWe embarked in a little caique full of Turks.The wind blew fresh from the N.W., as it generallydoes here at night in this season, and we made thepassage to Rhodes in one night.ΧΙΧ.RHODES, October 10, 1853.On the 30th of August I was agreeably surprised bya visit from the " Firebrand, " on her way south to thecoast of Syria. Lord Carlisle was on board, andwas so delighted with Rhodes, that I persuaded himto be my guest till the return of the " Firebrand. ”IN THE LEVANT. 249We had a grand pic-nic at the beautiful fountain atVilla Nova, where I entertained the officers of the"Firebrand" with a lamb roasted whole, some paleale, and sundry panniersful of water- melons andgrapes from the neighbouring village.On remounting our mules to return, the moreadventurous of the party attempted, greatly to thehorror of the muleteers, to ride cross- country. Thecase of Midshipman versus Mule was extremely wellargued on both sides, and in spite of wooden packsaddles, chain bridles, and rope stirrups, Midshipmangenerally succeeded in carrying his point by thepersuasive influence of a big stick.After staying one day, the " Firebrand " left us. Thenext morning, to my great concern and dismay, LordCarlisle became alarmingly ill . I sent for the doctorof the Quarantine, an Italian enjoying some reputeat Rhodes, who, after watching his patient for threedays, pronounced the disease to be small- pox. I immediately wrote to Smyrna for Dr. McCraith, who,I am happy to say, arrived by the next steamer.The first fortnight of the illness was an anxioustime for me; for I very soon perceived that theItalian doctor, alarmed at having so great a chargeas the life of an English Milord in his hands, grewnervous and indecisive in his measures. Fortunatelythe disease is one which is often best let alone; andthus the strenua inertia of the Rhodian Hippokratesprobably saved Lord Carlisle's life.When Dr. McCraith arrived, he found his patientrapidly approaching convalescence, and after a glanceat him, ordered a roast partridge and a glass of sherry.250 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESGreat was the consternation of the Rhodian doctor,who had been sedulously withdrawing all nourishment but tisanes. " Dio mio," he said to me, "vino!e pernice Milord will never bear all this strongfood."When, in the course of a few days, he saw Milordwalking about quite well, he did what doctors havenot always the candour to do, confessed that he wasutterly mistaken, and that the constitution of anEnglishman was to him a mystery.I had written to Lord Stratford and AdmiralDundas to tell them of Lord Carlisle's illness . Theconsequence was that soon after Dr. McCraith'sarrival came a steamer from the Admiral bringingDr. Rees, the chief surgeon from the " Britannia."Nor was this all, for Dr. Sandwith, hearing at Constantinople of Lord Carlisle's illness , came at onceto tend him; so that the Rhodian Turks began towonder what manner of man my guest could be whohad so many doctors at his beck and call .Small-pox is very prevalent in this part of Turkey,particularly in Asia Minor, where whole villages areswept away by it, and where children covered withpustules may be seen playing about the streetsuncared for. The native population, both Turks andGreeks, has a prejudice against vaccination, thoughthe Doctors attached to the Quarantine establishments take every means to introduce it.Dr. McCraith, who is equally skilful as a surgeonand as a physician, very kindly offered to give medicaladvice to the poor of Rhodes gratis during his stayhere. The fame of the great Smyrna larpós soonIN THE LEVANT. 251spread half over the island, and the Consulate hasbeen for some days thronged with the halt, lame,and blind of many villages.Among the cases brought before Dr. McCraithwas that of a young lady of thirteen, alreadymarried, and with a child in her arms, which fromher own tender age she was unable to nourish.Among the causes of the degradation of the racesin the Levant may be reckoned the unnaturally earlymarriages which are very common in many of theseislands. At Calymnos girls generally marry at theage of twelve. The Greek Bishops might, if theychose, check this practice.There seems to be a great tendency in theclimate of Rhodes to ophthalmic diseases . Dr.McCraith found a good many cases of pterygium,which is a triangular web commencing in the edgeof the cornea and spreading inwards to the pupil.It may be removed by cutting.Great was the astonishment of the natives at theresults of various operations for cataract, harelip,&c. An old priest came from a distant village tohave his thumb amputated, of which the bone wasdiseased. He bore the pain like an ancient Spartan,and when I met him in his native village someweeks afterwards, overwhelmed me with gratitude,rakee, and snuff. " I go to the church every day," hesaid, "and offer four wax candles to the Panagia, twofor my larpós [ Dr. McCraith] , and two for mychelliby, " meaning me.At the end of the month, the " Firebrand " calledagain at Rhodes, and took Lord Carlisle on board.252 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESCaptain Parker kindly conveyed me also as far asCalymnos, as I was anxious to explore the Greekcemetery there, with a view to excavation.Here I took leave of my kind friend Lord Carlisle,and saw with regretful eyes the " Firebrand " getunder weigh, leaving me suddenly bereft of all thepleasant associations of the last few days, and somewhat unnerved by their amenities for the roughlife which, I knew, was in store for me. When Iwas landed in the harbour in the early morning, Iremained like a waif thrown up on the sandy beach,seated on my carpet bag, and plunged in a reverieabout home, from which I was roused by an Ionian,who very kindly came to offer me hospitality in hishouse.In every island in the Archipelago there are strayIonians; wherever there are Ionians there is litigation;and litigation is sure to come, sooner or later, withinthe action of the Consul. It is for these reasonsthat Consuls can so easily make their way in themost inhospitable villages of the Levant, whereunprotected travellers might be left to starve.I passed several days at Calymnos, examining theGreek cemetery at a place called Damos, and amabout to report the result of my researches to LordStratford, who is so kind as to undertake to ask thePorte for a firman, if I think the ground at Calymnos sufficiently promising to make an excavationworth while.I asked the Calymniotes what they thought, hoped,or feared in the present crisis, and they appeared tothink that they were very well off at present, andIN THE LEVANT. 253would not suffer at all by the evils of war. "As longas we can sell our sponges, " said these cannyislanders,"we don't care whether the Sultan makes war ornot." The answer was a discreet one, but I doubtit* sincerity. Just at this moment they would beafraid to show too much Hellenic sympathy, with anEnglish ship of war anchored in their bay.XX.RHODES, November 3, 1853.THREE large Turkish steam frigates passed downa few days ago for troops from Beirout. This portends mischief: I hope it is not the forerunner of arevolution in Constantinople. As I write, thethunder of Zeus Atabyrios is rolling over my head;it is just 400 years since the last of the Palæologifell, nobly fighting for the remnant of an empire inthe breach at Constantinople; we have had a cometwith a long tail all the summer, and my superstitiousmind is picturing to itself a great massacre of theChristians, or some such catastrophe, at Constantinople. We are entering on a strange crisis now.Though our little island is as tranquil and as radiantin the autumn sun as ever, we begin to be infectedwith the general war mania. In the harbour arethree Ottoman ships of war, which I suppose areintended to take care of us in time of need. TheTurkish authorities here have been for some timepast in a fussy, restless state of mind whichbetokens vague alarms. Their efforts to put the254 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESplace in an efficient state of defence are ratheramusing. They are destroying the rich brown toneof the fortifications with whitewash, and patchingwith plaster the time-hallowed breaches made bythe stone balls of Mahomed II. and Solyman theMagnificent, with the vague hope that this whitewash will scare away the Russians. Every day amiserable handful of sailors and marines are landedfrom the Turkish brig-of-war stationed here, and gothrough an elementary drill, by which it is hopedin time to teach them how to use their cutlasses .These unpleasant preparations do not appear todisturb much the mind of the Greek population.The Rhodian peasant continues to dance at hispanegyris to the old monotonous tune of his λúga;he inquires now and then about the chance of war,but with no very distinct idea of what it is allabout, and with no apparent wish to changemasters. In the part of Turkey which I have hadthe opportunity of judging of from personal residence, that is to say the Archipelago, the Greekpeasantry do not appear discontented with thepresent state of affairs . Their physical and moralcondition has certainly much improved under theguarantee of the Tanzimat, especially in places whereits action can be enforced by consuls, and whereconstant communication by steam with Constantinople and Europe brings the force of public opinionto bear upon the local abuses of places, such asRhodes and Mytilene, which formerly were governedby petty tyrants, against whom no village Hampdencould appeal.IN THE LEVANT. 255In an excursion in the villages the other day, Iheard a sermon almost worthy of old Latimer, frommy friend Nikandros , the Greek priest, whom Idescribed in my account of the visit to Archangelo.He preached on the day of the feast, and rebukedhis audience for too much revelling. He said, " Youcome to these feasts, you eat, drink, dance, andwhat not besides, and then in the morning you comeinto the church, and think, by the offering of one littlecandle, to make your peace with God. Do you thinkGod cares for your candles? " Then he began to talkabout death and another world, till, by his energeticlanguage, he had created a visible sensation amonghis audience, and moved some of them to tears .Then he paused, and rubbed his hands with thatinward feeling of satisfaction which all extemporeorators experience when they begin to perceive thatthe discourse tells . Then he turned off to the subject of politics, and told them that these were timesin which every one must look after his own personalsafety, and that of those belonging to him, like a man(the Rhodiotes are noted cowards); and for thewomen, he said, let them not wear any gold orsilver ornaments about their persons, lest theyshould excite the cupidity of robbers. When thediscourse was over, I asked my knowing muleteer,Panga, whether all the Greek priests in the villagespreached as good sermons as that. " No," he said,"there is but one Nikandros among priests, as thereis but one Panga among muleteers ."It is not, however, with impunity that Nikandrosindulges in such freedom of speech; he is detested256 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESby his less learned and zealous brethren, who intrigueagainst him at Rhodes. The other day I invitedhim to dinner. My Greek cook, Hadgi, who is amodel of devout hypocrisy, was so shocked at myentertaining such a Lutheran, that I had some difficulty in persuading him to give us any dinner.I have already remarked that the Greek priestsin Rhodes have little personal influence. TheRoman Catholics here attribute this want of influence to the lax manner in which confession is conducted in the Greek Church. In illustration of thisview, an amusing anecdote was told me of a formerPasha of Rhodes, who, like Haroun al Raschid, wasin the habit of going among his subjects in disguise.One day, attired as a Frank, he presented himselfbefore a Catholic priest and confessed that he hadslain a Turk. "My son, " said the priest, " theTurk is an infidel, but you have not the lesssinned in the eyes of God. " He then dismissedhim, ordering a severe penance. The Pasha, thentaking a different disguise, confessed the same crimeto a Greek priest, who immediately gave him absolution, thanking God at the same time that therewas one Mussulman less in the world. The nextday, the Pasha, taking his place on his judgmentseat, summoned the two priests before him, andwhen he had made known the deceit he had practisedon them, proceeded there and then to hang theunfortunate Greek priest. It is hardly necessaryto add, that this Pasha lived in the good old timesbefore the Tanzimat.IN THE LEVANT. 257XXI.RHODES, December 10, 1853.ONE of the pleasantest excursions in the neighbourhood of Rhodes is to the pretty village ofTrianda, distant about five miles from the city, onthe road to Villa Nova. This road, issuing fromthe Neomaras, passes along the shore, up to the footof St. Stephen's Hill. Thence, making a bend tothe west at the distance of about half an hour fromthe town, it passes along the side of a marsh, where,according to the local legend which Schiller hasimmortalized, Dieudonné de Gozon slew the terribledragon.121 Beyond this marsh the shore bends roundto the north, forming the bay of Trianda, a fairanchorage in a south wind. The village is scatteredover a plain at a little distance from the shore.Here the Knights passed their villeggiatura duringthe summer months in pyrgi surrounded by gardens.Many of these houses still remain in fair preservation.They are built of stone, in the same simple style ofmilitary Gothic as the houses in the town of Rhodes.In some of these pyrgi the entrance-door wasanciently on the second story, to which there wasno access but by a drawbridge communicating witha detached flight of stone steps.Trianda lies at the foot of a hill called Phileremo,or Rhoda Vecchia, the site of the ancient Acropolisof Ialysos. This hill, which is a familiar seamark toS258 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESmariners approaching Rhodes from the north, risessteeply out of the plain: its top is a platform ofwhich the level has probably been improved by art.Its greatest length is from north-east to south-west.This kind of table-land constantly occurs on thenorth side of the island.The hill of Phileremo was occupied by the Knights,and is frequently mentioned in the accounts of thesiege.On the summit is a small crypt with a tunnelvault. The roof and sides are covered with picturesin distemper, much decayed. Some of the figuresare in armour, from the style of which, and the formof the escutcheons, I should infer that the date wasabout 1430. At the east end is represented theSaviour, and below, St. George; on the roof, theCrucifixion.East of this subterraneous vault is a Gothicbuilding with two rooms, side by side, covered withintersecting ribbed vaults. The windows are lancet,in a very pure Gothic, like our early English, butprobably as late as 1360 in date. There are severalother rooms which still retain their vaulting.'122I noticed here a block of marble on which weresculptured the arms of the Grand Master Fabriziodel Carretto, quarterly with those of the Order.It was here that, in the time ofthe Knights , stoodthe celebrated church Notre Dame de Philerme, sooften mentioned in the chronicles ofthe siege. To theshrine of this Madonna pilgrims resorted, and whenever Rhodes was threatened by any great peril , herimage was carried in solemn procession to the town.IN THE LEVANT. 259On the edge of the table- land may be seensome slight remains of the Hellenic fortificationwhich occupied this site, and which was calledOchyroma, or "the strong place," and on the northside, about two-thirds of the way up the lines,terrace walls may be traced, though much concealed by fig-trees . On this side, under a walnuttree at a fountain, are some fragments of Ioniccolumns in sandstone, 2 feet in diameter. Here Iobtained a marble lion's head from a cornice fairlysculptured.123 Ialysos was one of the three ancientcities of which the political importance was destroyedby the founding of Rhodes B.C. 408. Strabo describes it as a mere xun or village in his time;its distance from Rhodes he reckons at 80 stadia,which would be rather more than nine Englishmiles. The distance from Trianda to Neomarasis not more than five. We must look, therefore,for Ialysos to the west of Phileremo.The Chevalier Hedenborg, a Swedish savant resident at Rhodes, possesses a fine amphora, with blackfigures on a red ground, which, as he informs me,was found in a tomb near Phileremo; and betweenthat hill and Maritza, at the distance of one hourfrom the latter place, is a mound called Catzechi, onwhich was discovered the top of a Greek marblestelé, sculptured with a rich floral ornament likethose found at Athens.124 The mound seems artificial,and the fields round it were strewn with pottery.The stelé was found on its eastern side .This place lies south of Kremastò, close to whichvillage, according to M. Guérin, architectural marbles,$ 2260 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe foundation of a temple, and Hellenic tombs, havefrom time to time been discovered. It seems probable, therefore, that the town of Ialysos occupiedthe site marked out for it in the Admiralty Chart.M. Berg, a German painter sent by the king ofPrussia to the Levant, arrived here a few days ago,and is at present my guest. The principal object ofhis mission is to visit Lycia; but he proposes toremain here till the spring, and is now exploringRhodes under my auspices. He has made a beautiful panoramic sketch of the town of Rhodes, andmany drawings of the architecture of the Knights.I was in hopes that he would be able to make studiesof the costume of the peasants, but they have acurious superstition about portraits, which makesthem very unwilling to be drawn. In their mindsthe idea of likeness is connected with that of life, sothat the individual who allows his portrait to be takenis believed to be thenceforth in the power of theperson who possesses his likeness . The other day,in a remote village, I succeeded with infinite trouble,and through the intervention of Panga, in persuadinga young girl to sit to M. Berg. Just as the sketchwas completed, the mother arrived, and on learningwhat had occurred in her absence, reproached herdaughter with as much bitterness as if she hadcommitted some heinous crime, and made suchan onslaught on the poor painter, that, after vainefforts to appease the clamour, he tore up hisdrawing.This curious superstition seems a relic of theold belief that witches had power over persons byIN THE LEVANT. 261making images inscribed with their names, whichthey then subjected to certain rites.125[ In January, 1854, I transferred the charge ofthe Consulate at Rhodes to Mr. J. E. Blunt, beingobliged to go to England on private business. Ireturned to Turkey in June of the same year, and anew Consul having been appointed at Rhodes, wentback to my old post at Mytilene. ]XXII.MYTILENE, July 5, 1854.I SPENT a few days at Athens on my way back,and took the opportunity of revisiting Mavrodhilissito examine a fragment of one of the inscriptionsdiscovered since I copied them in 1852. This fragment gives the commencement of the list of victorsin the games. In the course of my stay, I becameacquainted with several of the young professors,who are sent out by the French Government tostudy archæology in the Levant, and who have theirhead-quarters at the École Française at Athens.One of these gentlemen, M. Guérin, has illustratedthe antiquities of Rhodes, Samos, and Patmos inmemoirs to which I have already referred . Anothermember of this school, M. Boutan, is about to visitMytilene for the purpose of preparing a memoir onthe island, which has been selected as a subjectby the French Academy. I accompanied him and262 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESsome French naval officers on a visit to Eleusis ,where, on our arrival, we were ignominiously peltedwith stones by the boys of the place. I was toldthat this had become a common practice of late.Sir T. Wyse seems tolerably satisfied with thenew Greek Ministry. They will, I dare say, act asthe Western Powers wish so long as our troops areat the Piræus; but the moment they withdraw,they will behave as Greek ministers usually do.The great mass of the people does not seem veryuneasy at the occupation . Some mortification,doubtless, is felt, though the Greeks are rather vainthan proud; but as the inhabitants of Athens havelet all the houses in the Piræus for barracks atan unheard-of rent, and are every day engagedin selling beef and bread for a large body oftroops, the presence of foreign bayonets is notperhaps quite so disagreeable as might have beensupposed.The Greek minister the other day gave a grandbanquet to the English, French, and Greek officersin the Acropolis . The dinner was laid out in theParthenon, which seems a great desecration; butthe place was not inappropriate for the inaugurationof a new epoch, if this is to be one.On my leaving Athens, Captain King, being aboutto take H.M.S. " Leander " on a cruise to look forpirates, kindly offered me a passage as far as Syra,where our arrival was a source of great satisfactionto that part of the population which does notbelong to the Greek Church. This place consistsof two distinct towns, -the Greek town on theIN THE LEVANT. 263shore, and the Latin town on the heights above.These latter, who are all Catholics, are descendantsof the Italian families who occupied so much of theArchipelago in the Middle Ages. Several of themassured me that since the outbreak of the Russianwar they had been exposed to many insults whenpassing through the Greek quarter, being constantlyinvited by the populace " to come to the font and berebaptized, " the Greeks not considering the rite ofbaptism valid unless performed by a priest of theirown faith. This feeling of antipathy between theLatin and Greek populations prevails all through theArchipelago, and if not checked from without, maysome day lead to religious feuds as intense as thatof the two Egyptian towns Ombos and Tentyra,described in Juvenal. We saw something of theunpleasant temper of the Greeks at Syra one evening, when the band of the " Leander " was sent onshore to play for the amusem*nt of the town. Avery dirty and disorderly rabble crowded upon thepart of the Piazza where the ladies were seated, sorudely as almost to upset their chairs. The localauthorities very properly interfered; but the peoplemurmured at their very temperate remonstrance,and I heard one unwashed and somewhat noisyrepresentative of the Demos of Syra upbraid apoliceman for thus doing his duty, and say to him,in a menacing tone, that he was annoying the people.I have too often occasion to remark that the lowerorders in the Archipelago have not yet learnt thatgood manners are perfectly compatible with freeinstitutions .264 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESDuring his stay Captain King sent off a boat toDelos, to look for pirates, who have multiplied sincethe war broke out, but are so chased by the boatsof the French and English ships of war, thatthere is every hope that they will be put down.They have had the audacity lately to rob a boat insight of the harbour of Syra. According to theopinion of Mr. Wilkinson, our Consul there,the scoundrels who massacred the crew of the"Harriet " the other day were volunteers going offto the frontier, and not professional pirates, who donot generally commit murder in these seas.At Syra I took leave of the " Leander," and embarked in an Austrian steamer bound for Smyrna.Returning to my old post, after an absence ofnearly a year and a half, I found Mr. GrenvilleMurray, who had been acting in my stead duringmy absence, anxiously awaiting my arrival in orderto be released from the monotonous weariness ofinsular life. He has a shrewd appreciation of theGreek character, and his estimate of the Mytileniotesseems to be much the same as my own. Now that Ihave had the opportunity of comparing Mytilenewith other islands in the Turkish Archipelago, I amstruck with the fact that its superior wealth andintelligence have contributed so little to the moralimprovement of the population.The difference in the state of society here and atRhodes may be thus accounted for. The Rhodioteis for the most part a peasant proprietor; his chiefemployment is to cultivate his own land, consumingthe greater part of the produce in his own family.IN THE LEVANT. 265As he is neither a trader nor a mariner, his transactions are of a simple nature, and he is seldominvolved in litigation.The Mytileniote, if he is a landholder, is generallya cultivator of olives . But this tree is uncertain inits yield. A full crop cannot be expected on theaverage more than once in three years. Hence everyone in Mytilene who owns olives is forced, afterconverting his crop into money, so to invest theproceeds as to get a profitable return during thebarren years.There being neither public securities nor banks inwhich investments can be made, the cultivator ofolives must either trade with his money himself orlend it on such security as mortgages on land orships. But as there is no certainty in the administration of justice, such securities cannot be made assafe as the law makes them in most parts of Europe.The debtor, if he enjoys the protection of somepowerful member of the Mejlis, evades the foreclosing of a mortgage, contrives a fraudulent bankruptcy, and, not unfrequently, denies his ownsignature with unblushing effrontery. The naturalresults of this speculative style of trading are a verylow standard of commercial morality, an exorbitantrate of interest, ranging from 12 to 24 per cent. ,and a passion for petty litigation . When a wholecommunity is so absorbed in this kind of paltrytrading, the general calibre of mind is very muchthat of the old usurer, of whom Aristophanes hasgiven us so graphic a portrait in his " Nubes," andthe base low cunning of the Mytileniotes has gained266 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESfor them an unenviable notoriety among their fellowGreeks.Having a little leisure time at present, I havebeen making an effort to learn Turkish. My masteris a Hoja or priest, whose special vocation it is toteach small Turkish boys reading and writing. Hismethod of instruction is the dreariest imaginable.It consists simply in forcing the pupil to repeatafter him, first, a collection of syllables and then ofsentences, each word as it is uttered being pointedout to him in a printed text, in order that he maythus learn to associate a particular group of characters with a particular word. The unfortunate pupilis expected to learn all this en bloc, before he hasbeen taught the letters of the alphabet, the simplestgrammatical forms, or even the commonest colloquialwords. It is evident that such a method can onlysucceed with a native who has already acquired,through the ear, the use of his vernacular. MyHoja, however, who is the impersonation of antiquated bigotry, and who is as obstinate as a Mytilenemule, insists on forcing Colnaghi and myself throughthis disgusting mechanical drudgery, and was veryangry the other day when he discovered that wewere abridging his circuitous route by taking a shortand easy cut, and that in the intervals of hisnauseous lessons we studied a very amusing collection of dialogues and tales, in which the Turkishtext is printed in Roman as well as Arabic characters, and is accompanied by a French translation.The Hoja seemed shocked at the notion that any oneshould try to abridge the time required for learningIN THE LEVANT. 267to read Turkish. He told us with much complacency that it required about forty years to masterthe text of the Koran; but that at the expiration ofthat period the scholar would meet his reward, forthe Koran contained all knowledge that was of anyuse to man. I asked him whether he had no curiosity to know anything about European countriesor the discoveries of European science. He gaveme the old stereotyped answer, that if any of thisnew knowledge was good for the soul of man, itwould be found in the Koran (by dint of searchingof course); if not, it was not worth knowing. Oneday I showed him how I inflated an india-rubberbath. The bellows made a curious squeaking noiseas it drove in the air. The Hoja stood by withstolid indifference. When I had stopped workingthe bellows, he inquired why the noise ceased. Onmy explaining to him the cause, he said with a lookof disappointment, " I thought that there was ananimal inside. "XXIII.MYTILENE, August 16, 1854.A FEW days ago, Ishmael Pasha, the GovernorGeneral of the Archipelago, arrived here fromRhodes, in a Turkish war steamer. Every summer the Pasha of the Archipelago makes a tourof inspection round the islands entrusted to hischarge, with the professed object of redressing anygrievances and punishing any acts of maladminis-268 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStration. His authority being supreme, appeals arethen made to him against decisions of the localMejlis. This personal inspection of a pashalikmight be made to operate as a salutary check onlocal abuses. I fear, however, that, in most cases,the only result of such a visit is the extortion ofsundry presents from the subordinate Pasha, inatonement for any sins of maladministration.On this occasion, the Pasha of the Archipelagowas accompanied by Mr. Campbell, who has beenrecently appointed Consul at Rhodes; and wishingto do all honour to such distinguished strangers,I gave them a rustic entertainment. My worthyand amiable neighbour, the French Vice- Consul,M. Didier, was also duly invited, in order that thisbanquet might be complete as a celebration of thetriple alliance .We feasted on a roast lamb in a Turkish garden;the flags of the three nations formed an awning overour heads; we drank the Sultan's health in pale ale,and taught the Turks to receive it with an Englishhip, hip, hip, which they did not the least understand,but were not the less delighted with. All the distinguished individuals present made speeches oneafter another, through the medium of my dragoman;and very curious discourses they were. The Pashaof Rhodes having drunk two glasses of rakee beforedinner, and about two bottles of pale ale at dinner,the Pasha of Mytilene, being his subaltern in rank,felt bound to imitate his example; and being a poorshaky old man, has had indigestion ever since, theresult of Giaour beer. I do not know that any otherIN THE LEVANT. 269mishap took place. After dinner we walked about onthe shore, listening to barbarous Greek music. ThePasha of Rhodes took my arm, and being very drunk,rolled about, so that I had great difficulty in keepinghim steady.Mr. Campbell being obliged to return beforecompleting his tour, requested me to accompanyIshmael Pasha to Tenedos, and Lemnos. We proceeded to Tenedos in the Pasha's steamer; theweather was fine, the Pasha in excellent spirits andvery well disposed to talk. As he speaks Greek,we could dispense with the restraint imposed by theintervention of a dragoman, and I had the opportunity of discussing many topics much more freelythan would have been possible in a formal visit tohis konak, where a pasha is seldom alone.Ishmael Pasha, whom I have already describedtoyou in my Rhodianletters, is rathera remarkableman. If he couldonlyspeakFrench, he mightbe ambassadorat Londonor Paris, or holdevena higherpositionin his owncountry. He is a verysmartlittleman, dressedlikea petitmaître, withveryshinyboots, trousersstudiouslystrappeddown,his beardandhairtrimmedwiththemostscrupulouscare. He is in everywaya trimmer. He hasoneset of fairspeechesfor theEnglishconsul, anotherfor theTurkishmagnates, anotherfor theGreeks.He triesto be all thingsto all men. Heprofessesto delightin Europeansociety, andstaystill daybreakat suchprofaneentertainmentsas Europeanballs. He respectsthe Prophet'sprohibitionin thematterof wine

but, finding

no mentionof spirituous270 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESliquors in the Koran, considers them as tacitlyallowed. After dinner his orgies are such as toshock the propriety even of the Mytileniotes.As compared with really strict Mussulmans, Ishmael Pasha may be called a Turkish esprit fort. Helaughs at the poor plodding Hoja with his Koranunder his arm, and admitted to me, confidentially,that the Koran was only a religious book, but thatit did not contain all human science, as the Hojasupposed; that there were such things as geography,history, &c. , which were profitable to know, and yetdid not form part of the Koran; that it did notrequire forty years to know the contents of thiswonderful book, but that any man of common sensemight master it in as many months.The opportunity seemed not a bad one forspeaking out plainly, so I said, " Why does not theSultan encourage Europeans to buy land and settlein Turkey, instead of throwing all manner of hindrances in the way of such purchases? If Europeanscould be encouraged to settle in Turkey, capitalwould be expended on the land, which is at presentutterly impoverished for want of proper cultivation.'The Pasha winced a little, and said, "But whatwould become of the Turks? We should all sellour land, and become beggars." I could not say tohim, " Why not? " I renewed the subject in thecourse of the day; but he " shifted his chibouque,and only took snuff. ”Ishmael Pasha professes to have a taste for literature, and I actually saw him read a page of aTurkish book, after which his eyes became fatiguedIN THE LEVANT. 271with the exertion, and he gave the book to his divaneffendi to read to him. He told me that it was thehistory of the destruction of the Janissaries, drawnup by official authority, and that his own name wasmentioned in it.On arriving at Tenedos, I spent two or three dayson shore in the house of M. Tolmides, the Austrianconsular agent, from whom I obtained some usefulinformation about the island.Tenedos is much less mountainous than any islandof the Archipelago which I have yet seen. Something like roads exist; and people talk about goingto the right or the left, instead of up or down, asthey do at Mytilene, where there is hardly a squaremile of level land. The vineyards lie in small plainssurrounded by hills, which keep off the violence ofthe winds. The vines are very small, and cultivatedalong the ground, more in the European style thanin any vineyard which I have seen in Turkey. Thevineyards are generally manured every two years;they are dug three times each year with a twopronged hoe, still called by its ancient name, díxeλλa.δίκελλα.The soil is a rich and friable loam. The grapesmost esteemed for flavour are called Mavrelia. Asthese yield but little juice, they are mixed with acommoner sort called Kondoures. At the vintagethe grapes are picked over, and the decayed onesrejected; but this is not done with much care. Thegrapes are trodden by the foot, and the pulp thenput into a vat, where it is kept boiling for about amonth; it is then put into barrels, where it remainsfor another month; after which the wine is fit to272 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdrink, though some drink it as soon as it comes outof the vat. I was assured that it was made withoutany adulteration, and that it would keep many yearsand bear transport by sea. The whole produce of avintage is generally sold off at once, and I couldhear of no wine in the island itself more than a yearor two old: what I tasted was of excellent quality.This is one of the few places in the Archipelagowhere wine is made for exportation. The Greeksgenerally content themselves with making enoughfor their own consumption from year to year, verymuch as the farmers in Herefordshire make cider.They have bottles but no corks, barrels with onlywooden hoops, and everything else in the sameprovisional style.The annual produce of the vintage varies from25,000 to 10,000 barrels. A barrel holds nearlysixteen imperial gallons. The annual value of thevintage in a good year is reckoned at 800,000 piasters, about £6,779.126M. Tolmides estimated the number of vines in theisland at about a million. He thought that thewhole annual expense of cultivation might bereckoned at seventeen shillings for every thousandvines. A vineyard, when first planted, does notproduce wine for six years; in the seventh year itbegins to be profitable.The wine of Tenedos used to be exported toOdessa, but since the Russian war has been sent toConstantinople.No other article of commerce is exported fromthe island, except a small quantity of wool.IN THE LEVANT. 273The harbour is much exposed to the north, and isstill, as in the time of the ancients, statio malefidacarinis; but I was assured that a good harbourmight be made by running out a mole on the N.W.,at a cost of rather more than £2,000 . It is calculatedthat such a harbour would contain about fifty shipsnot exceeding 400 tons burthen, and would probablygive considerable impetus to the wine trade.The population of Tenedos is reckoned at about4,000, of which one-third are Turks. The islandonly produces sufficient wheat to support the inhabitants during three months of the year. The wholeof the taxes of the island amount to 300,000 piasters(equal to £2,542 ) , of which the tithe of the grapesproduces 48,000, and the Palto 155,000 .The Palto is an assessment tax on the value of thewine. The community of Tenedos engage to paythe Porte 200,000 piasters annually, which theyraise by the tithe and the Palto. After the latter taxhas been paid on the wine, it is exported duty freeto Constantinople. The remainder of the revenueis made up by the Haratch, or capitation tax,which varies from seventeen shillings to a dollarannually, according to the means of each person,and the Salgun, or dopo, an assessment tax on allthe real property in the island. The joint annualproduce of these two taxes is about 100,000 piasters(equal to £847).Besides these regular taxes, the Sultan, from timeto time, levies extraordinary subsidies. This yearhe took 11,000 piasters.There is a Greek school at Tenedos, on which theΤ274 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScommunity spends 10,000 piasters annually. Thissum is collected from the inhabitants generally.The scholars are about 200 in number, includingsome girls. This school has existed about twentyfive years.About two-thirds of the population can neitherread nor write.There is a Turkish castle here, with a garrisonconsisting of 180 local militia and 24 artillerymen.Tenedos was ruined by the Russians when theyoccupied it in 1807. Many rich Turks formerlylived here. It was once covered with trees, whichwere destroyed in the Greek Revolution.A strong north wind springing up, the Pashaabandoned his intention of visiting Lemnos andSamothrace, and we returned to Mytilene.XXIV.MYTILENE, September 6, 1854.THIS morning I went at sunrise to see the ceremony of the Courban Bairam. The GovernorGeneral turned out with his irregular guards, themilitia from the castle, and some marines fromthe ships of war, in a grand procession to the principal mosque. He was dressed in that rich goldembroidery in which the Turks take so muchpleasure; he was mounted on a magnificent horse,who walked mincingly, " as if he told the steps; 'before him marched the half- drilled rank- and-IN THE LEVANT. 275file of the castle, and a long string of uncouthlooking Albanians and Bashi Bozooks, shamblingalong with that peculiar inimitable swagger whichbelongs to the cavass from Asia Minor. They allwent to the mosque, and after an interval ofprayer, returned to the Pasha's kiosk; the nextpart of the ceremony was the sacrifice of a numberof sheep, which are always distributed on thisday to the poor: they were brought to the doorof the kiosk; holes were dug in regular Homericfashion to receive the blood, and their throatswere cut in a very workmanlike manner. It iscustomary for the Pasha either to perform thisoperation with his own hand or to delegate it tohis representative, who is solemnly appointed for thispurpose before the Cadi. I went home from thisceremony full of Mussulman associations. Aboutthe middle of the day I was invited with the othervice-consuls to attend the funeral of a rich Greekwho had died that morning, and had bequeathedone-third of his property to found an hospital forthe Mytileniotes. The bequest is supposed to amountto 200,000 piasters, a large sum in Mytilene. Suchacts of patriotism, if they should become morefrequent, would do much to redeem the Greek character, and raise it to a higher estimation. A bequestof this nature could hardly have been made beforethe Tanzimat was established; a Greek would nothave been allowed either to accumulate so large asum, or to dispose of it after his death as he liked, atleast not in Mytilene.When I arrived at the funeral, I found allT 2276 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe Greeks in the town collected round thehouse and in the adjoining streets; at the doorwere men carrying baskets on their heads, withmelons and bread, and other offerings for the poor;inside was the sound of weeping and wailing of theconventional kind, which is always thought necessaryin funerals in southern countries. I made my wayto the door, and was immediately accoutred withvarious white scarfs and sashes-one of which istied on the left arm. The pictures on Greek vasesshow that the victorious athletes in antiquity worejust such a decoration. When one of these sasheswas offered to my Albanian cavass, he resisted theattempt to put it on his arm with true Mussulmanscorn. All these preparations having been made, Iwas told off with my colleagues, the French, Austrian, and Sardinian consuls, to our respective postsas pall-bearers; and so we marched through thenarrow, crowded, and dirty streets of Mytilene,under a blazing hot sun, for upwards of an hour, tillwe had perambulated the whole town and comeround to the same point.Possibly this perambulation may be a relic of theold classical decursio or solemn procession round thefuneral pile. Very weary work it was: I got lost ina reverie more than once, and fell to studying theexquisite embroidery on the Archbishop's robe, whowas walking immediately before me. Having beencharged to buy embroidery for the South KensingtonMuseum, I thought what a grand acquisition I couldmake if I could purchase that and the state robe ofthe Pasha, which had figured in the Bairam proces-IN THE LEVANT. 277sion in the morning. Perhaps in the wreck of theTurkish empire both these trappings some day mayfall into my hands.At last we got to the church. When we were allwedged into our places, the funeral service began,—along course of droning chants and mumbled prayers.The heat was intense, and I thought we shouldnever get to the end. At last the chanting ceased,when up got the Bishop's Preacher, or Hierokerya,in a pulpit, and delivered a tedious extempore discourse in honour of the deceased. After this we gotout of the church, and I thought the burying was certainly going to begin; but no. After the priestshad done their work, the schoolmasters began, andwe had to listen to two more funeral orations, readover the grave, after the Père la Chaise fashion.The first was written by a young Greek of thename of Lailios, who had been well educated inGermany. His oration was full of quotations fromPlato and Sophocles , and at the same time he tookoccasion to criticise things and people in Mytilenevery freely; and thus his discourse was employedfor the same purpose as funeral orations served inantiquity, when, in the absence of such means ofexpressing public opinion as a free press affordsus, the orator mixed up with the panegyric ofthe individual many topics of social and politicalinterest. At last the discourses were over, andthe burial began, when the gamins of Mytilenecrowded round us with that unrestrained licensewhich is their characteristic in the Greek islands onsuch solemn occasions. They nearly succeeded in278 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESpushing the poor old Archbishop into the grave, justas he was pouring a vial of holy oil on the coffin;however, we managed to finish the ceremony, andthe crowd dispersed. Before we separated, a mancame round and divested everybody of the scarfs,gloves, &c. Your Greek, though he loves display,has "a frugal mind, " like Mrs. Gilpin; so I suppose all these trappings were let out for the day.It is believed that the funeral cost £ 100 . It wasnot much to my taste; for, considering the excessive dearness of bread, and the real suffering of thepoor of Mytilene at this moment, it would havebeen much more in accordance with the occasion tohave spent more on alms, and less on archbishops ,priests, and preachers, all of whom lengthen orshorten the service in exact proportion to the sumthey receive. If the funeral had been that of a poorman, he would have been thrust into his grave witha few half-articulated prayers, a handful of dust, andno holy oil; no archbishop , priests , and deacons;no public orators, no consular pall-bearers, no procession, no rose-water and flowers flung from thewindows, no attendant rabble; -in short, none ofthe glories of a Greek funeral. When it was allover, I told my dragoman the story of the recentfuneral of the Duke of Portland by way of contrast.Coming as it did on the same day as the greatMussulman festival, this Greek pageant made allthe deeper impression on me from the abruptness of the transition. The two ceremoniesclashed in a curious way; for the consular flagshaving been hoisted in honour of the Bairam,IN THE LEVANT. 279were lowered during the funeral half-mast high,which did not probably please the Turks; and theelaborate periods in the discourse of the Greekprofessor over the grave were interrupted by thethunder of saluting batteries from the castle, as theCourban Bairam drew to a close.The Pasha of the Archipelago sent to inquire whyI had lowered my flag; I sent back a message to saythat it was in honour of a Greek who had deservedwell of his country. How he liked the answer Iknow not. Talking over the affair with the tworival doctors of Mytilene the next day, I found thatthey were mutually accusing each other of havingput the unfortunate benefactor of his country outof this world. It is further said that his relations,who honoured his memory with so magnificent afuneral, utterly deserted him in his last moments,because he had made this bequest for public purposes.However, on the whole, I am glad to see something like public spirit stirring among the Greeks.It wants direction to good and practical objects, andsuch direction can only be given by greater power ofsocial combination among themselves, more integrity and truthfulness in the relations between manand man.280 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESXXV.SMYRNA, October 10, 1854.I MENTIONED in a previous letter that after myvisit to Calymnos last year, I applied to Lord Stratford for a firman to enable me to make excavationsthere. His Excellency having obtained this firman ,and very kindly provided me with funds sufficient forcarrying on a small excavation, I am now about totake advantage of his assistance, which I shouldhave done sooner had it not been for the necessityof going to England last winter.I arrived here yesterday on my way to Rhodes,where I have to exhibit the firman to the Pasha.To-day I wentto see the new road which extends fromthe Caravan Bridge nearly to Bournabat. This road,which was made last year by subscription, in order togive employment to the poor in a period of greatdistress, is a good wide macadamized highway, witha footpath on each side; but the people of thecountry make little use of it, as they have nowheeled carriages. The mules and pack-horses haveworn away a serpentine track through the bed ofthe road. The smart equestrians of Smyrna usurpthe footpath, but nobody uses the road in the sensein which we use roads in Europe, and it will, consequently, be soon worn in patches, and the trackin the centre will be broken into holes and puddlesas the winter advances. Wherever I have seenIN THE LEVANT. 281- -an attempt at road-making in Turkey, I havealways observed that the traffic is not on the road,but alongside of it, in order to avoid the hardpavement. Large sums were promised for the subscription by the Greeks; but now that the time forpayment has come, there seems to be difficulty inrealizing their promises. The making this road hasled to the discovery of considerable ancient remains .Beyond Caravan Bridge, on the road to Bournabat,is a large Turkish cemetery. Immediately beyond thiscemetery great quantities of squared blocks of marblesand mouldings of buildings all rough-hewnhave been recently dug up; also several sarcophagi,one with ornaments in bas-relief, of a late Romanperiod; a colossal head of Apollo or Bacchus, which Idid not see, but which, judging from a drawing, appeared very hard and mannered; and a fragment ofan inscription which seemed to be sepulchral. Thisspot is probably the site of an ancient cemeterysituated outside the old town. At Caravan Bridgea marble lion was found in 1852, which probablymarks the situation of a tomb. Part of the groundwhere these antiquities were discovered belongs toMr. Whittall, who would probably make an excavation on a large scale if he could get a firman. Heis very rich and very generous; he gives awayimmense sums to the poor, and keeps up a veryprincely style of hospitality at Bournabat.At the special request of Mr. Hanson and Dr.McCraith, I went yesterday to see the Britishhospital, which, I must say, is a disgrace to anynation occupying the position which we hold at282 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESpresent in the East. This hospital at Smyrnais intended for the exclusive benefit of Britishseamen from ships of war and the merchant navy.It is supported by dues levied on every Britishship which arrives in the port at Smyrna. Therevenue was formerly administered by the LevantCompany, and was by them transferred to theGovernment. The hospital has remained in statuquo ever since the breaking up of the Levant Company. It is placed in a miserable, dilapidated oldhouse, the ground-floor of which is periodicallyflooded in bad weather. The rooms on the upper floorare pictures of squalid misery, the plastering decayedand full of holes, the walls dirty, —with no moderncontrivances of any kind. We found three sailorsimprisoned in this Black-hole; they were jolly goodhumoured fellows, said the bugs were "as big asblack currants," and that the bedsteads, thoughconstantly washed with hot water, were so old andsaturated with vermin that their crevices contained"the essence of bugs. " In the holes and cornerswere worm-eaten old chests, which still bore thename of the Levant Company.Opposite the British hospital is the Dutch hospital, -a perfect model of neatness and propriety,with a garden kept in order and planted with trees,and that air of comfort both inside and out whichcontributes so much to the cure of an invalid.I next visited the Greek hospital, which is on a largescale and in excellent order; lastly, the Austrian, —small, but well organized. The French I had nottime to see; but I was assured it was admirable.IN THE LEVANT. 283Now, there may be some good reason for the verysingular contrast which our hospital presents; butI cannot help thinking that, if the British Government were really aware what a miserable place it is,they would take some more active steps to providea better. It is no excuse to say that the Englishhospital at Constantinople is worse; and that therethe bugs drop down fromthe ceiling on the patients'faces. In the course of this war we may wanta good hospital for our merchant sailors at Smyrna,and so we may as well get it ready at once. Atpresent the establishment is much more like aTurkish khan than the hospital of a civilized people,and yet we profess to exhibit to the Turks a modelto be followed in all things.127XXVI.CALYMNOS, November 11, 1854.AFTER duly presenting my firman to the Pasha atRhodes, and receiving in exchange for it a mandateaddressed to the Turkish Governor and the Primatesof Calymnos, enjoining them to facilitate my operations in every way, I set sail in a caique for thatisland, accompanied by an Italian artist, SignorPanni, who was staying at Rhodes, and by mycavass, a smart young Albanian, whom I haverecently engaged in my service, securing hisaffections for the next six months by a present ofa gold-laced jacket, with a promise of a pair of284 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESsilver-mounted pistols if he behaves well in thisexpedition. He condescends to cook for me aslong as we are travelling, though no Albanianwill stoop to regular menial service in a household.Our stock of tools and implements for excavationwas not extensive. It consisted of four Englishshovels and picks, three crowbars, two blocks, anda rope. The caique had a cargo of wheat, whichmade a very cool and comfortable bed to lie on.At Rhodes we heard many stories of pirates offCape Crio; so when I got to Cos, I asked the captain of the caique, a knowing old Greek mariner,whether he thought we should be safer with aguard of Turkish cavasses. He declined the offer,confiding to me at the same time the fact that hehimself had some money on board; so I took hisadvice, and we completed the voyage without anyadventures. On arriving at Calymnos, we foundthe inhabitants very Russian in their sentiments,and rather indisposed to welcome Frank visitors.The news of the battle of the Alma, which webrought with us, did not contribute to their goodhumour, and I was told privately that I had comeat an inopportune moment, and that it would behopeless to attempt excavations, as the land wasall private property, and no one would consent tomy digging in his field. I thought, therefore, itwould be more prudent not to hurry matters, andso kept the Pasha's letter in my pocket, andestablished myself quietly in the upper town, whereI spent some days in copying inscriptions andcollecting coins .IN THE LEVANT. 285Every day the price of corn rose, as winterapproached; and the poorer classes, being in wantof employment, began to agitate in my favour; tillat length I was formally invited by some of thechief Greeks of the place to commence my excavations. The land being all private property, I hadin each case to make a bargain with a differentowner. These negotiations were at first verytroublesome; but I succeeded in persuading severalsmall proprietors to let me dig their little plots ofground, with the agreement, that for every tomb Iopened I was to pay a price, which I at first fixedto three dollars, but afterwards lowered, in consequence of the unproductive results of many tombs.I commenced my operations in the middle of anancient cemetery, which still retains the classicalname of ὁ δῆμος.On referring to Dr. Ross's map of Calymnos,128 itwill be seen that this cemetery is situated betweenthe modern harbour, now called Pothia, on theeastern coast, and Linaria on the west, and thatbehind it is a range of mountains crossing theisland in a direction north-west by south- east .The cemetery of Damos lies on the slopingirregular ground at the foot of this mountain; andimmediately below these slopes is a small andfertile valley, extending to the western coast. Suchslopes, intervening between the cultivated land ofthe plains and the barren mountain- sides, werevery frequently selected by the Greeks as the sitesof their cemeteries. The site called Damos, atCalymnos, is a piece of rocky ground which evi-286 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdently formed an ancient stone-quarry.Here thesurface of the rock is cut into steps and grooves.In one place is a monolithic base containing asquare chamber 9 feet 7 inches by 7 feet 8 inches,entered by a doorway, the whole being cut out ofthe solid rock. Above the doorway, the rock is cutinto steps, in rude imitation of a pyramidal roof.Near it is another tomb, consisting of an underground chamber cut out of the rock and roofedover by two immense blocks, one of which has beenremoved. The chamber is 8 feet long by 4 feet7 inches wide. One of the blocks which cover itmeasures 7 feet by 2 feet 2 inches wide, and is2 feet 5 inches thick. Adjoining this quarry onthe north is a field where a number of graves havebeen opened. They lie in clusters, and are cut outof the solid rock, which here crops up to the surface.This field is bounded on the north by a ravine,beyond which the land bears the singular name ofΔραπέτης,— the Runaway. ”From the quarry the district of Damos extendsdownwards towards Linaria, forming a sort oflingula of rock jutting out into the plain in adirection north-west by south-east: on each sideis a ravine.On this isolated tongue of land are foundationsof houses, and two Hellenic cisterns, cut out ofthe solid rock, with steps in the sides, giving accessto the water at the bottom. The ground is strewnwith fragments of pottery and painted stucco. Onthe north side a staircase cut in the rock leadsdown into the ravine below.IN THE LEVANT. 287The neck of this peninsula is separated from thequarry by an Hellenic wall, the foundations ofwhich still remain. It is evident that a smallGreek town once stood on this rocky site.ments.On the south of the Damos the land becomesless rocky, and slopes more gradually to the plain.The land here takes its name from a small churchdedicated to the Prophet Elias, but forms part ofthe cemetery already described. Here, about theyear 1842, a peasant called Janni Sconi found inhis vineyard a stone coffin or soros, covered with amarble slab so heavy that he could not lift it alone.Calling in the aid of a neighbour, he uncoveredthe soros, which was full of beautiful gold ornaOn the discovery of this great treasure,the neighbour who had aided Janni Sconi to liftthe stone claimed his share. Janni Sconi presentedhim with the magnificent sum of five piasters, orrather less than a shilling; on which the neighbour,out of revenge, informed the Turkish Governor of thediscovery. The law of treasure-trove was instantlyput in force, and Janni Sconi had to give upeverything, and was presented with asum ofmoney very much below, as he assured me, theamount to which he was legally entitled . Thegold ornaments were sent to Constantinople, andhave since unfortunately been dispersed . The finestof them were obtained from the Porte by thePrussian Government.According to information acquired at Calymnosby Ross, the whole treasure consisted of the following objects:-288 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES1. A diadem of massive gold about 1½ in . wide.2. A necklace richly ornamented, from whichhung two gold cornucopias suspended from chains.3. A pair of fine gold earrings, the pendant ofwhich was formed by a winged figure, probably aCupid, holding in one hand a wine-jug, in the othera dish. The whole of these ornaments weighed421 Venetian ducats, and were valued at only 2,000Turkish piasters, about £18.129There were found with them in the sarcophagus asilver coin of Calymnos and a bronze mirror.I commenced digging in the part of Damoswhich had anciently formed a quarry, and at theend of the first day came to three tombs of children,all of which had been previously opened and thecontents broken. The next day I came to a muchlarger tomb, rather more than four feet below thesurface. This tomb was covered with a stone lidin two pieces. The workmen, who are artists forthis kind of work, having a great deal of practiceat Calymnos, first removed every atom of earth fromthe lid of the tomb, taking care to stop up all theholes to prevent the earth running in. They then,with much care and neatness, and not with theclumsy impetuosity which English labourers wouldhave shown, lifted up one of the two stones whichformed the cover. On looking into the tomb,the first thing I saw was a jug of red pottery, themouth turned downwards: between the handle andneck of the vase was a small earthenware lamp.Taking out these two, we came to the feet and legsof the skeleton. We then took off the middle stone,IN THE LEVANT. 289to payand found a glass bowl of very elegant form, turnedover the pelvis, the mouth downwards; higher up,towards the head, was another earthenware jug,and a small vase of the sort formerly called lachrymatories. We then took out the bones and the wholeof the earth of the skeleton; and lifting it with greatcare, found a silver coin, the vaunov, which wasalways placed in the mouth of the dead person,his passage in Charon's boat. Thisproved to be an unedited coin of Cnidus, with amagistrate's name. The present Archbishop ofMytilene, who has been much in Macedonia, told methat in that uncivilized and remote part of theTurkish empire the Greek peasants still retain thecustom of placing a vakov in the mouth of the dead.Wishing to put an end to this relic of paganism, heexplained to them that the coin they used for thepurpose being a Turkish para, and being inscribedwith a quotation from the Koran, was consequentlyquite unfit to be placed in a Christian tomb.130 Theskull was that of a woman; the teeth were veryperfect, and as remarkable for whiteness and regularity as those of the Calymniotes of this day. Thegrave itself was a narrow bed, just large enough tohold a body, very neatly cut in the rock.After we had finished this tomb, we dug on andcame to a second close by. Here the head wastowards the west, and lay between the two thighbones . We therefore concluded that this body hadbeen in ancient times shifted from its place. Thisskeleton appears to be that of a man about thirtyyears of age. We found hardly anything in theU290 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStomb, and the workmen said that the defunct wasa shabby fellow not to have left a coin to pay Charonwith.In the next field to the south I found anothergrave, containing similar common pottery and a bowlof thick well-preserved glass . Contiguous to this,on the south, was a grave lined with large squaretiles with flanged edges, and covered with a stone.Outside the tiles were two rows of deep cups, placedone within the other, and lying horizontally on theirsides . This grave contained many vases, all broken,two coarse terra- cotta reliefs , a silver ring, twosilver fibulæ of very ordinary workmanship, a largecalcedony polished for engraving, and a copper coinas naulon. Inside this grave were layers of shingle.I found in this field a whole cluster of graves, thebearings of which evidently followed no fixed rules.In one of them were a bronze arrow- head and anumber of broad-headed iron nails, which may haveserved to hold together a wooden coffin or casket.I found one instance of the same mode of intermentin large earthen jars, which I had noticed in theTroad two years ago. (See ante, p. 135.)The contents of the graves up to this date arenot very promising. The pottery is generally coarseand unvarnished. In one grave I found a cup oflate black ware, ornamented with a Dionysiac subjectin relief. This kind of ware is seldom to be metwith, and belongs to the Macedonian period.In spite of the small success up to this date, I findgreat pleasure in the kind of life I am leading here.I remain in the fresh air all day long, enjoying theIN THE LEVANT. 291beautiful view which stretches away towards Astypalæa and Carpathos, and watching the progress ofthe workmen at every stroke. My food is broughtto me in the middle of the day, when we all sitdown under the shade of the rock and eat rusticfare.XXVII.CALYMNOS, December 8, 1854.THE first sheet of this letter has been at thebottom of the sea in several fathoms water. Thecaique in which it was despatched to Rhodes wascapsized by the carelessness of the captain, and sank.The Calymniote divers, notwithstanding the coldness of the weather, contrived to descend severalfathoms, fasten ropes to the caique, and drag it intoshallow water. The inhabitants of Calymnos, likethose of Syme, Chalce, and other small islands nearRhodes, are celebrated as divers, and spend thewhole summer in fishing up sponges on the coastsof Asia Minor and Syria. In the month of May alittle fleet of caiques sets sail from Calymnos,manned by the greater part of the able-bodied malepopulation. The profits of the sponge-fishery arevery considerable. The divers in each caique enterinto partnership. They are generally poor men, andthe money for rigging out the caiques and for themaintenance of the crew during their voyage is lentto them by the richer Calymniotes, who stay athome and trade in sponges. On the return of theU 2292 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEScaiques in the autumn, the merchants who made theadvances to the divers reimburse themselves by purchasing the produce of the season at a price verymuch below the real value of each cargo. The spongemerchant then sends his sponges direct to Smyrna,Syra, or Trieste, where they are repurchased by thegreat traders who supply the European market;and thus, when the sponge arrives in England, theprice, after passing through so many hands, is verymuch raised. But the cause of the dearness ofsponges is the great risk of life and capital incurredin the first instance. The diver descends, holdinga flat stone in both hands, to assist him in sinking,on which stone a cord is fastened. When he getsto the bottom, he puts this flat stone under his arm,and walks about in search of sponges, putting themin a net hung round his neck, as fast as he uprootsthem; he then pulls the cord as a signal, and isdrawn up again. It is said that the best diverscan descend to a depth of thirty fathoms, and thatthey can remain under water for as long a periodas three minutes.131 From inquiries which I havemade, it does not appear that they are oftencut off by sharks, though these monsters are notunfrequent in the southern part of the Archipelago.It is possible that the rapid descent of the diver mayscare away this fish, who generally seizes his preyon the surface. A Calymniote told me that the mostterrible sensation he had ever experienced wasfinding himself close to an immense fish at thebottom of the sea. Under the root of the spongeis a parasitical substance of a caustic nature. ThisIN THE LEVANT. 293often bursts when the sponge is suspended roundthe diver's neck, and the liquid it contains causesdeep ulcers in his flesh.Before the sponges are exported, they are cleanedand spread out in fields to dry. In fine weather,many acres of sponges maybe seen at Calymnos thusexposed. Part of the process of preparing them forthe European market is the filling them with sand.The reason assigned for this singular practice isthat, the sponges being always sold by weight,it was the practice fraudulently to increase the weightof the fine sponges by surreptitiously introducing alittle sand. To meet this fraud, the sponge-merchantsrequire all sponges to be filled with as much sandas they can hold; and as the quantity which eachsponge can contain may be calculated, this amountis always deducted from the weight. The sand thusserves as a common measure.Rather more than half the sponges from Calymnosare exported to Smyrna, and the rest to Syra,Trieste, and Marseilles. The annual value of theexport is reckoned atpiasters (about £16,949) .which go to fish for sponges is about two hundred,with a tonnage of from one to three tons each.about two millions ofThe number of caiquesLatterly a rich and enterprising Calymniotemerchant, by name Antonio Maillé, has built a shipof 200 tons, which he sends out every year tothe more distant sponge - fisheries laden with anumber of caiques and their crews. On arriving attheir destination, the caiques are launched from theship, which remains there till the fishing-season is294 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESover, and carries them back. A great saving oftime is thus effected, and the risk of shipwreck ofcourse much diminished. On the coast of Crete theCalymniotes have to pay 600 piasters each for permission to fish in the Cretan waters. On the Syriancoast this permission is granted on payment of from100 to 140 piasters each caique.132The finest and best-formed sponges in the Archipelago are found round the island of Astypalea,near Calymnos. The sponges of the northern partof the Archipelago are fine, but not well-formed;above the Dardanelles, sponges are found in smallquantities but of bad quality. The Cretan spongesare much esteemed for their fineness; those of Syria,known in the trade as Paracham, for their forms.The sponges of Barbary are difficult to cleanse, andare therefore not durable. Professor Forbes, in hisaccount of the Archipelago sponges, quotes Aristotle as stating that the best kinds grow on thecoasts which become suddenly deep, and that thesuperior fineness of texture in these deep- sea kindsmay be attributed to the greater uniformity oftemperature of the water in such places. TheCalymniotes do not agree to this. They think thatsponges grow best where the bottom is level , butdo not believe that they are affected by the changeof temperature in shallow water. Where, however,they are subject to the action of the waves, thismovement must affect their shape and growth.The fine sponge without sand is worth at present from 100 to 250 piasters the oke (a weightequal to two pounds and three- quarters avoirdupois);IN THE LEVANT. 295the ordinary sponge from 15 to 50 piasters the oke.Before the Russian war, the fine sponge was worthfrom 70 to 80 piasters the oke, and the coarsersort from 10 to 25. The annual value of thesponges exported by the island of Syme is reckonedat about 2,500,000 piasters (£21,186) . The smallisland of Chalce exports to the value of from500,000 to 600,000 piasters (£4,237 to £5,084) ,and the island of Castel Rosso rather less.The Calymniotes call the sponge frutta diCalymno. Their island, the greater part of whichis very barren and does not produce more thanone-third of the corn it consumes, has, since theGreek revolution, been constantly increasing inwealth and population from the development of thesponge trade. The present number of inhabitantsis reckoned at about ten thousand, of whom abouthalf are males. The roving and varied life of thesponge- divers, and the address and courage requiredin their calling, render them very much more intelligent than the ordinary peasantry of the Sporades.On the other hand, the large profits of the spongefishery in good years rather lead them to despiseagricultural pursuits, and they leave much of theoperations of husbandry to be performed by women,passing their time in winter in the cafés , wherethey sit smoking over a pan of charcoal, and recounting the singular adventures which they havemet with in the course of their rambles, and whichgive an Odyssean character to the lives of some ofthem. Most of the seafaring men bring back apocketful of Greek coins after the summer cruise,296 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESand, from the variety of remote and unfrequentedplaces which they visit, they often pick up veryrare and curious specimens. There is no betterplace in the Archipelago to buy coins than thisisland immediately after the return of the spongedivers in the autumn. I bought an interesting coinof Cilicia which was found in a cargo of wheatfrom Tarsus .In the old times, when the Archipelago swarmedwith pirates, the Calymniotes dwelt in a fortifiedcity perched on the top of a steep rock, as theinhabitants of Astypalea do to this day. Sentinelswere perpetually stationed on the hills to give asignal in case of the approach of pirates. Thiscustom is curiously commemorated in the names oftwo of the highest mountains in the island, one ofwhich is called Vigli, "the watch, " the other MeroVigli ( μegóßiya ) , " the day-watch. "Since the Greek war of independence, the greatersecurity of the Archipelago has led the Calymniotesto desert their old fortified city, and to build a newone a little lower down the mountain-side . Thistown is situated on the neck of land half-waybetween Linaria and the harbour of Pothia. Atthis latter place a second town is growing up, whichwill probably some day be the capital.The houses are very studiously whitewashedoutside, and from their extreme regularity anduniformity of size, look, at a distance, like thosecubes of chalk which are given to beginners todraw from. Inside, I missed the neatness andcomparative cleanliness of the Rhodian peasant'sIN THE LEVANT. 297house. Generally the house in Calymnos has twostories , in order to have more room for the stowageof sponges. There are hardly any shops. Eachman lays up his own stock of provisions for thewinter, so that a stranger has difficulty in existingat all, unless he has some friend to purvey for him.As from the scarcity of fodder there are very fewbeasts of burden, most of the necessaries of life imported into the island, such as corn, fuel, wine, andeven timber and stone for building, have to be carriedon the backs of men, and oftener of women andchildren, from the port to the higher town, a distance of about two miles. There are no fountainsin the town of Calymnos; the wells are very deep,and at some distance from the town. When thesupply of water gets low, the women descend tothe bottom of the wells, inserting their handsand feet in the crevices between the stones oneach side with great dexterity.Nothing would be easier than to make a road forwheeled vehicles; but the Calymniotes are stillvery far from this stage of civilization . Theconstant labour of transport presses very heavilyon the women, who are puny and undersized. Theyare usually married at the age of fourteen, andsometimes as early as twelve. It is a common sightto see a young girl, herself a mere child, totteringunder the weight of a sack of flour or load of wood,under which, slung in a kind of scarf, is a bambinoso tightly swathed as to be no more than a flexiblecylinder. Many of these children die off whenthey are very young, from imperfect nourishment,298 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESdirt, and general neglect. Those who are strongenough to pass the ordeal of so rough a nurture areleft to shift for themselves at a very early age, andvery soon take to the water like young spaniels .On my first visit to Calymnos in the summer time,I saw four young ladies of about seven years oldlying in a row on the sand, drying their bodies inthe fierce midday sun, after having taken a plungein the sea.men.The women of Calymnos, from always remainingin the island, are very much less civilized than theTheir dialect is very barbarous and difficultto understand; but since the establishment ofschools is gradually disappearing. Their dress resembles that of the Rhodian peasantry; but thedirect trade with Smyrna and Syra has introducedthe printed cottons instead of the more picturesquehomespun garments, and the sound of the loom isseldom heard in Calymnos.Much of their time is spent in pounding barleyin a mortar with an iron sharp-pointed pestle,which gradually removes the external husk. Thisprocess is called xоTavitev; and thus may be explained the expression, ἄρτος τρισκοπάνιστος, in theBattle of the Frogs and Mice. With the flour of thisbarley an excellent biscuit is made, which retainsits crispness for many months, and is thereforevery good provision for the Calymniote diver in hisvoyages.Their industry is great: I find them excellent as anauxiliary force in my diggings. The monotonous toilin which they pass their days is occasionally relievedIN THE LEVANT. 299by the excitement of a death-bed, which is regardedas a public spectacle, where all have a right to bepresent who can elbow their way into the house.They seem to like it nearly as much as a play.Another occasional excitement is the punishment ofa thief, who, when detected, is , by the custom ofthe country, hunted like a mad dog through thetown, the whole population following him full cry upand down the steep narrow streets till they areweary of the sport. The punishment of a fourfooted thief is also singular. One day I saw a manshoot three pigs in his field, and, inquiring what thismeant, was told that, by the custom of the country,a pig found trespassing might be put out of theworld, without judge or jury, by the person onwhose land he had strayed. By the same rule, oneear of an offending donkey may be cut off.XXVIII.CALYMNOS, February, 1855.SINCE my last report on the diggings , I have continued to explore cemeteries and other localities ,with very chequered fortune.After a great deal of trouble, I succeeded in obtaining permission from Janni Sconi to dig over thevery field where he had found the treasure someyears ago. I very soon came to graves, but not of avery interesting character. The outline of the gravewas only marked by two or three rough slabs placed300 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESover it . The interior was always full of earth, inwhich small vases were imbedded.In one of these graves, evidently that of a female,was a small marble circular box, with traces ofcolour outside. Such boxes, called pyxides, formedpart of the toilet apparatus of the ladies of antiquity,and probably contained unguents or other cosmetics.In another grave was a lamp on which waspainted the head of Leda with the swan, in red on ablack ground-the only vase with figures painted onit which I found in Calymnos. This grave alsocontained a large two-handled cup of plain blackware, a lamp, and three vases with covers. In thesoil, when sifted, were some beads of a silvernecklace, a silver fibula of very ordinary workmanship, and some small pearls from a necklace.All these objects were found about 2 feet below thesurface. I opened seven other graves in this field,several of which were very small, as if intended forchildren. In one of these was a terra-cotta relief,representing two female figures bidding adieu toeach other. The material and execution of thisrelief were very ordinary. It was so imbedded inthe soil that even the fine hands of my workmenfailed to detach it, except in very small fragments.Such terra-cottas are not uncommon in Greektombs. I found no gold in Janni Sconi's field, exceptone small spangle, though the Greeks expected thatmuch treasure would reward our diggings, in thecourse of which a curious domestic scene took placein my presence between Janni Sconi and his wife.The lady, who conceived that her consent ought toIN THE LEVANT. 301have been asked before we entered the field, stoodover a grave which we were just going to open, andcursed her husband and our whole party veryheartily, making mysterious gesticulations over ourheads. All her own relations attended to back herup; and it is probable that, if we had found anything worth carrying away, a scramble would havetaken place over the grave. Several other Greeksalso made their appearance, claiming a part ownership in the field, and marking out the little plotswhich they claimed with heaps of stones. Great wasthe litigation between them and Janni Sconi as tothe question of boundaries. The fields in Calymnosoften contain within the same enclosure plots ofground belonging to several owners, and thisdivision of property sometimes extends even to theolive and fig-trees .Finding that the graves in Janni Sconi's field didnot repay examination, I soon drew off my workmento explore the fields all round this spot, which wereequally unproductive. I then returned to therocky part of the Damos, and tried a field adjoining the tongue of land on which an ancienttown evidently once stood.Across the neck of this tongue of land was a lineof wall running north and south between the tworavines. This wall I traced continuously by excavation for about 165 feet. It is about 7 feet wide,with a casing of isodomous masonry on each side,the centre being filled up with rubble. The largestof the blocks were about 4 feet by 2 feet 5 inches.The stone appears to have been cut from the adjoin-302 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESing quarry.At the distance of about 53 feet fromits southern extremity, the wall throws out a squaretower, probably intended to protect a gateway.On the east side of this wall I found the ancientsurface of the soil at depths varying from 3 to 8 feet.This surface was strewn with fragments of redcoarse pottery, among which I found three handlesof Rhodian diota inscribed with the names of magistrates, three grotesque heads in terra- cotta, abronze fish-hook, part of a terra-cotta figure, andportions of stucco from ancient houses.About 100 yards east of the wall is a naturalplatform of rock, in which I found several tombsvery neatly cut in the bed of the rock, and closed bymonolithic lids slightly ridged.On the northern side of the same rocky platformI observed a square opening like a doorway cutthrough the rock, at the edge of the platform.The sides of this opening were lined with cementin which were fragments of tiles . At the end ofthisopening was a wall nearly concealed by earth whichhad accumulated against it. On removing this wall,I found a small natural cavern, at the bottom ofwhich were three graves side by side.The contents had evidently been disturbed andthe wall at the entrance carefully replaced. In theearth, inside the cavern, were fragments of bones, ofordinary red pottery, and of glass vessels, two smallportions of ornaments of beaten gold, and a glassbead. In one grave were two copper coins, one ofwhich proved to be an unedited coin of Cos, struckin the reign of Caracalla.IN THE LEVANT. 303Ross states that another similar cavern wasdiscovered in Calymnos some years ago, about halfa mile to the west of the one opened by me.Immediately to the east of this field is another,separated from the tract called Apaπéτns by a ravine,where I found a great number of graves cut in therock, but containing no object of value.The entire strip of land over which my excavationshad extended up to this date was about half a mile;the number of graves opened was about forty.The pottery found in these graves was all of alate date, probably from B.C. 330 to B.C. 150, orlater. The forms were deficient in elegance. Theware was for the most part black varnished ware,red varnished ware, and unpainted drab ware. Theblack varnish, as is often the case in the later ware,had not resisted the action of wet. Bones wereseldom found; many of the graves contained thevahov, or copper coin. The accumulation of soilover the grave was generally from three to four feet .A lamp or cup was constantly found in the soil,a few inches distant from the side of the grave.These were doubtless left there by relations whocame to bring offerings to the tomb, as we seein those vase-pictures which represent Heroa, orarchitectural tombs, on the steps of which rows ofcups or vases are placed by female figures offeringlibations .To this day the Greek peasant does not forget tomake periodical libations; and as I return from mydiggings on Saturday evenings here, I generallymeet a procession of peasant women on their way to304 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe churchyard, swinging censers full of incense,and bearing in their hands a small tin can of oil toreplenish the lamps, which they keep constantlyburning in the tombs.I next explored part of the site of the Temple ofApollo, where, on first arriving at Calymnos, I hadbeen unable to obtain the right of digging. Thissite is at present occupied by the small church ofChristos, which is built in a great measure out ofthe ruins of the Temple of Apollo. It is situatedabout half-way between the harbours of Pothia andLinaria, on a kind of neck of land shut in by hills oneach side, and connecting the two valleys of Pothiaand Linaria.A ground plan of the church of Christos may beseen in Ross, ii . p . 96. The apse at the east endis entirely built of Hellenic blocks. In the spacein front of the west door a Corinthian column isstill standing. On the south side of the church isthe smaller church called Hypakoe, attached to itlike an aisle.I commenced digging in a field adjoining thechurch on the west, which had been partially explored by the proprietor about two years ago, onwhich occasion he found two cubes of marble containing decrees for the manumission of slaves, andthe name of an artist from Crete previously unknown.Making an excavation in front of the churchwithin about 12 feet of the western wall, I found thatformerly it had been continued farther in thisdirection, the pavement still remaining. This wasIN THE LEVANT. 305composed of large square slabs of marble from theoriginal pavement of the temple, which had beenlaid down a second time irregularly; the chasmswhere slabs were missing having been filled up bytessellated pavement.Immediately to the front of the single columnstill standing, are two large blocks. One of themmeasured 3 feet 1 inch by 2 feet 5 inches by 1 foot9 inches, and was inscribed with the name Nikokles;and below, in smaller characters, the names, Nikoklesand Aratogenes. Side by side with this was a secondblock, extending to the base of the column. Theseseemed, from their size and position, to be a portionof the southern stylobate, still remaining in itsoriginal place, though I do not feel quite sure ofthis . Ross states that at the time of his visit therewere persons in Calymnos who remembered eight ofthese columns in a row.Continuing the line of the western wall of thechurch, at the distance of 6 feet 10 inches to thesouth of the supposed stylobate, was a parallel row ofblocks, one of which seemed to be the thresholdstone of a doorway 3 feet 5 inches in width. I foundno trace of stylobate or other foundations on thenorth side, as the proprietor of the field had dughere previously to my visit. In the Byzantinefoundations on this part of the site I found a wristand part of a hand, part of an arm, and fragmentsof two feet of a colossal figure in white marble,and in a good style of sculpture. It is notimprobable that they formed part of the statueof Apollo himself.X306 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESA little to the south of the church of HypakoeI found five very well-preserved stela lying inthe soil, one of which was covered with a deeply- cutinscription on both sides, relating to a civil actionbetween the people of Calymnos and the heirs of acertain Cleomedes, who appear to have been citizensof Cos. This suit seems to have been referred to atribunal at Cnidus.On one side of the stelè the mode of procedurein the trial is set forth, with the form of the oathto be administered to the Dikasts and the witnesses:on the other side is the sentence, which is decidedby a court of Dikasts. The number of votes forthe plaintiff were 78; for the defendant 120.In case any of the witnesses residing either inCos or Calymnos should be prevented from appearing in court, it is ordered that their depositions betaken in either island before the magistrates, calledProstata, copies of which, attested by the seal of theState as affidavits, are to be then transmitted to theadversary in the suit. The length of time for thepleadings is measured by the klepsydra, Toτì xóas:for the first pleading each party is allowed eighteenof the measures called xóes; for the second,ten. Such a trial was technically called díxn πρòsὕδωρ.133Beyond this field to the west, the ground slopesdown towards two wells. I thought it probablethat, as the drainage from the temple must havebeen carried down this declivity, some small relicsand votive offerings would be found in the soilhere.IN THE LEVANT. 307I was not altogether disappointed in this hope.A few feet below the surface I came upon anancient paved road, which had led evidently fromthe wells to the temple. I removed every stone ofthe pavement carefully, and thus found a greatnumber of Greek copper coins, several of whichwere from distant places; such as Miletus, Sigeumin the Troad, Macedonia. I also found a bronzenetting-needle and other small objects in the samematerial, and such a number of bronze arrow- headsas to lead me almost to suppose that a showerof arrows had fallen here. The points of some ofthem were blunted. Along the sides of the roadwere traces of an ancient water-course, in the bedof which I found two or three interesting terracotta reliefs; and, higher up the slope, thetooth of a horse, bound with a bronze loop, bywhich it had been suspended; a tress of hairin bronze; a colossal thumb in marble: all thesehad evidently been votive objects offered in thetemple.In the upper part of the field , nearer the temple,I found a few fragments of sculpture in whitemarble; an archaic male head in the Æginetanstyle, greatly defaced; part of a thigh, from a maledraped figure; and the torso of a female statuette,perhaps a Venus, tying her sandal.134Here also was a stone forming the angle of asmall pediment, with dentils coarsely executed .(See the cut, infra. )At the top of this field and on the south side ofthe temple I came upon the angle of an Hellenicx 2308 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESbuilding of isodomous masonry. Within the wallsthere was no pavement, and I found no antiquitiesexcept a large ball of lead, perhaps from an ancientsteelyard.FHLength on FH, 2feet 6 inches.In the field to the south of the church of Hypakoe,at the distance of 13 feet 8 inches from the wall of thatchurch, I found Hellenic foundations running fromN.W. to S.E. at a depth of from 7 feet to 8 feet belowthe surface. On laying these bare, I discovered threechambers arranged as in the annexed plan. Thespace marked by the walls ABCD was paved withrough stones, as if it had formed an outer passage.It was 12 feet wide, and we traced it to the N.W.44 feet how much further in this direction itran could not be ascertained. On removing thestones of the pavement carefully, we found in theinterstices many Greek coins, bronze arrow-heads,glass astragali, or knuckle-bones, small glasscounters of different colours, bone hair-pins, andother small objects such as might naturally havebeen dropped there from time to time.At F I found under the pavement a Greek sword-IN THE LEVANT. 309handle of bronze in the form of a gryphon's head.The sockets for the eyes were empty, and probablycontained some vitreous composition . This bronzebelongs to a good period .AF10 20 30 FeetHIKBEDThe area of the smaller chamber E was 14 feet10 inches by 11 feet 2 inches; the pavement wascomposed of rough stones like that of the long passage, but was raised above it 10 inches. At G wasa doorway with the stone sockets for the hinge andthe bolt, and near it a window about 6 inches wide.The third chamber, marked H, branches out fromthe long chamber to the S.W. It terminates in anapse its length, the apse H included, is 16 feet7 inches; its width 14 feet 8 inches. The semicircularend, and one side of the chamber, were paved withlarge squared blocks very firmly fitted together; onremoving which, I found a second pavement ofsimilar blocks.Between the interstices of the upper pavement310 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwere several copper coins, arrow- heads, and glassastragali. Beyond this chamber are foundations ofother Hellenic walls stretching to the S.W. fromthe angle IK. These I was unable to explore.The largest of the blocks which formed these coursesmeasured 3 feet 10 inches by 1 foot 8 inches.The foundations I have here described were inthe same line as the angle of Hellenic wall which Ihad found to the W. of the temple, and probablyformed part of the same series of buildings. Weknow that within the precinct of an ancient templewere often buildings for various purposes, such astreasuries to contain votive objects, houses wherethe priests dwelt, and where strangers who visitedthe temple might be lodged.15 In the case of theTemple of Apollo, it is certain, from the evidence ofan inscription, if I have rightly deciphered it, thata theatre stood within the precinct of the temenos.This inscription records a grant of land decreedby the Senate and People of Calymnos to a publicbenefactor. The land is granted by the State toAratokritos, the son of Aristias, to enable him tobuild in it, at his own expense and for the publicbenefit, a proscenium and Scene, and to surroundthe temenos, or sacred precinct, with a wall. Theline which mentions that the theatre stood withinthe precinct of the temple is so nearly illegiblethat my reading of it may not be generally admitted; but it is confirmed by a very curiousdiscovery which I made in the course of examiningthe church of Christos.At the end of the decree, the form of the dedi-IN THE LEVANT. 311catory inscription to be placed on the proscenium isprescribed to be as follows: —Αρατόκριτος Αριστίατὰν σκανὰν καὶ τὸ προσκάνιον στεφαναφορήσας ᾿Απόλaww λωνι,, " Aratokritos, the son of Aristias, beingStephanephoros, [ dedicates ] to Apollo the Sceneand the Proscenium."Now it is a curious coincidence that over thedoorway of the church at Christos is a fragment ofarchitrave on which is inscribed in majusculecharacters:-.... ΝΑ.. ΡΗΣΑΣΑΠΟΛΛ ...This fragment was noticed by Ross, whor*marks that it was probably part of a dedicationinscribed on some monument in the vestibule ofthe Temple of Apollo. With the aid of the decreerelating to Aratokritos, it is obvious that the wordsin the fragment must be restored στεφα ] να [ φο ]ρήσας"Añónλ[ wn]; and there can hardly be a doubt thatthe architrave of which this is a remnant actuallyformed part of the proscenium dedicated by Aratokritos.It is possible that further excavation to the southof the church of Christos would bring to light sometrace of the theatre mentioned in the inscription ,with which the Hellenic foundations explored byme may be connected. When I first saw thisinscription, it was built into a tomb in the moderncemetery. As it was inserted upside down, theletters were in some places nearly effaced, thecopying it was a very painful and tedious process,and occupied me several days.186312 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESTo the east and S.E. of the temple I found thefoundations of two large Byzantine monasteries,which had been built close to the church. Sometime in the Middle Ages they must have beendestroyed; and afterwards the deposit of alluvialsoil from the hills completely obliterated all tracesof their walls. In these foundations, and inthe soil about them, I found many fragments ofGreek inscriptions which had been broken up andlaid like tiles in the masonry to give it more bond.The labour of breaking up these walls was veryconsiderable; and, as one of my Greek workmenobserved, with Homeric simplicity, the work of demolition required " a brazen man with iron hands. "Some small fragments of statues of a good timewere intermixed with the rubble of these walls;and in the soil of the field I found a small marbleterm with a Satyric head, the only object in theshape of statuary which had escaped the iconoclastic zeal of the monks of Calymnos. In thecourse of the excavations in this field, I dug upseveral fragments of vases with red figures on ablack ground, of the best period of fictile art, andvery superior in fabric to any which I found inthe tombs. In the foundations of the monasterieswere many coins, and a few bronze implements ofthe Byzantine period.While I was gradually forming a collection ofinscriptions from these excavations, I employed allmy leisure time in copying the inscriptions insertedin the walls of the various churches in the townof Calymnos and the neighbourhood. Nearly allIN THE LEVANT. 313of these originally belonged to the Temple of Apollo .After spending much time in deciphering theseinscriptions, I find that there were in all sixty- fourdecrees made by the senate and people of Calymnos.Of these decrees, nineteen grant the politeia, orcitizenship, to foreigners, for services rendered tothe people of Calymnos; eleven grant the proxeniato foreigners for similar reasons; thirteen relateeither to politeia or proxenia, but from their mutilated condition their import cannot be preciselyascertained; two relate to judicial proceedings;two confer crowns; two bestow honours on physicians; two honours for services in war; andone an honorary grant of land. Eleven aremere fragments, of which the subjects cannot beascertained.All these inscriptions probably belong to theperiod between B.C. 350 and B.C. 250. In oneof them occurs the mention of a king Antigonos,who is most probably Antigonos, the father ofDemetrios Poliorketes.It is interesting to observe, that in this list thegrants of politeia, or full citizenship, are far morenumerous than those of proxenia. The right of fullcitizenship was bestowed very liberally by the Asiaticcities; and it is probable that the small and rockyisland of Calymnos was very glad to increase itspopulation through such means. Judging frominscriptions, it would seem that such grants ofpoliteia were very rarely made by the cities ofGreece Proper, though the more restricted rightsof proxenia were very generally given. Among314 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESthe inscriptions I copied, was a list of citizens.and metoikoi, contributors to some tax.One of the honorary decrees confers a crown forservices rendered in a maritime engagement offthe island of Cos, between the Calymnians and thepeople of Hierapytna in Crete. These hostilitiesprobably took place about the 2nd century B.C.,when the Archipelago was much infested by pirates.Besides the inscriptions of the Macedonian periodalready enumerated, were a number which may obviously be referred to the time when Calymnos formedpart of the Roman empire. The earliest of thesewas a dedication to Apollo by Publius ServiliusIsauricus, when Consul, by which the date of thisinscription is thus fixed to B.C. 79. This I dug upamong the Byzantine foundations. Another dedicatory inscription by the same Servilius is built intothe western wall of the church of Christos.There were of the Roman period several otherdedicatory inscriptions, one of which has been thebase of a statue of Caligula, and twenty-five recordsof the manumission of slaves, a rare and curiousclass of documents. Some of this latter classwere dug up in a garden called Blyko, near theharbour of Pothia, amid the ruins of an old Greekchurch, and were noticed by me in my visit in 1853.The magistrates whose names appear at the headof the decrees of the Macedonian period are alwaysthe prostata. In the manumissions, the Eponymousmagistrate of Calymnos is the Stephanephoros, atitle adopted in many Asiatic cities. In the grantsof citizenship, we get the names of several Demi, orIN THE LEVANT. 315burgs and tribes (Phyla) , to which the new citizenswere assigned by lot. Among the names of theDemes is that of Pothoi. The resemblance between this name and that of the harbour Pothiais curious. I am assured that in the small islandof Telendos, lying off Calymnos, is a place calledPotha.The list which I have here given of inscriptions ,and which does not include all the fragments found,will serve to give some idea of the rich collection ofhistorical and municipal records which must haveonce existed in the Temple of Apollo. It is curiousthat, till the time of Ross's visit, hardly any inscriptions of Calymnos were known to exist.The excavations on this site show very clearlywhat has been the fate of the greater part of theGreek temples in the Archipelago. The sculpturesin marble must have been at a very early periodbroken up by the Iconoclasts, and the fragmentsbuilt into the walls of monasteries, or madeinto lime; while , the works in bronze or moreprecious materials were melted down and probablyconverted into Byzantine money at Constantinople.The inscriptions being generally on thin slabsvery serviceable in masonry, have not been so ruthlessly destroyed as the statues, and many probablywill be found in the walls and pavement of ruinedmonasteries.At a place called Argos, near the upper town ofCalymnos, are two portions of a frieze of gryphons,in relief, which, doubtless, once ornamented theTemple of Apollo. One of these fragments was316 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESinserted in the wall of the church called Kyria,the other in that of the church of St. George.The sculpture, which is covered with whitewash, iscoarse and late. In the wall of the church Kyriais a relief representing a funeral feast, and in thepavement the fragment of a decree.Between the port and the upper town is a castle,which stands on a height a little way inland, and iscalled τὸ πέρα κάστρον. In one of the walls is anescutcheon with the arms of the Grand Master, Johnde Lastic.187 Within the castle is a little church dedicated to the Panagia. The jamb of the entrance doorway to the castle is a block of marble, inscribed witha dedication of a temple and certain statues by Nikodamos, son of Aratogenes, priest of the Dioscuri. 158OutTo the west of Damos is a small valley leadingdown to the shore. Here is a church dedicated toSt. Michael (Taxiarches) , and close by it a well ofexcellent water, with a square aperture built ofmarble. This well appears ancient. Near this wellis a cave, called ' μлρóστivα μéρn , which extends, as Iwas told, for about 450 paces into the earth.of it has been dug, probably for centuries, a red clay,which supplies material for a pottery at the mouthof the cave. Here I found a potter at work with awheel, which has, probably, not changed its formsince the time of the ancients. It consisted of alower disk, poxós, turned by the foot, and connected with a smaller upper disk, xpòs τροχός Tpoxós,by a spindle, póxa. A lump of clay having beenplaced on the upper disk is fashioned as it revolvesby a wooden lathe held in the hand. On a GreekIN THE LEVANT. 317cup in the British Museum a potter is representedat work with a similar wheel.139 After the shape hasbeen thus formed, the handles are put on when required, and the ware is left to dry in the sun till ithardens. It is then baked in a furnace for a wholeday. All the modern Greek pottery which I have seenis of a very coarse kind, though in many islandsthe ancient shapes of the amphora and other largervases are still retained, with little deviation. Thisis particularly the case at Rhodes. The fine toughclay used by the ancients is either unknown or theprocess by which it was tempered and wrought tosuch tenacity is no longer understood: glazing isseldom employed. Many of the ancient names ofvases are still retained. At Calymnos saucers arecalled πινάκια, and large pails for milk, ἀρμέγοι, fromαρμέγω, the Calymniote corruption of ἀμέλγω, “ tomilk."On the shore at Linari is a harbour formed by asmall bay. Here I saw a column of blue marble,inscribed with a dedication by the people of Calymnosto the emperor Claudius, styled Saviour and Benefactor ofthe island.140North of Linari and opposite the small island calledTelendos is a ruined church on a hill, which containsfragments of columns. A temple perhaps stoodhere; and a little to the south of this church is aplace called Periboli, planted with vines, where manypieces of ancient marble have been dug up. Theseremains may mark the site of an ancient city. Thechannel between the shore and Telendos here is verynarrow, and affords good anchorage for large ships.318 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESI crossed over to Telendos, where I found little tointerest me. On the shore opposite Calymnos arethe ruins of a village, where I noticed in the wallsof the houses squared blocks from some ancientedifice. Here are several ruined churches, but Icould find in them no inscriptions.A steep mountain rises from the shore, on thesummit of which is a medieval castle with cisterns.I did not examine this, but my companion, the Greekschoolmaster of Calymnos, assured me that therewere no inscriptions there. I was told that on thenorth side of Telendos is an Hellenic fortress builtwith very large blocks of stone. This we had nottime to examine.Hearing that there were Hellenic tombs at a placecalled Vathy, Balú, to the north-east of the town ofCalymnos, I visited this spot. The road to it, leavingthe old town on the right, leads up a steep mountainpass to a rocky crest, connecting the mountainsAgios Elias on the right and Milianos on the left.On crossing this ridge, we descended by a road asabrupt as the ascent into a narrow valley, which stillretains its ancient name Temenia, and where, according to Ross, a quantity of silver coins were foundsome years ago .141This valley is bounded on the N.E. by the mountain Parasebaste, which extends across the islandin a direction S.E. by N.W. At its eastern extremitythe valley of Temenia widens into a little plain ,extending as far as the sea, where is a small harbour,very suitable for ancient shipping. This plain, therichest part of the island, is called Vathy. It isIN THE LEVANT. 319planted with olives and studded with houses, whichform a cluster round, a metoche, or farm, the propertyof a church.142Proceeding in a south-eastern direction towardsthe sea, we came to a plateau rising out of the plain,very similar to that of Damos. On the south, awall of Hellenic masonry runs continuously along therocky edge of this plateau for several hundred yards.Within the precinct of this wall is a ruined churchdedicated to St. Michael (Taxiarches) , and builtentirely of Hellenic blocks; and further on anotherchurch, Agios Georgios, where Ross copied a sepulchral inscription of the time of the Antonines.143The whole of this part is called Encremea. In theplain south of the Hellenic wall have been foundtombs. Immediately below the southern edge of theplatform is the bed of a small stream, crossing whichwe came to a plain planted with olives. Beyondthis plain, to the south, are small natural mounds.The tombs are said to be in a sandy level between thesemounds and an old church, called Panagia Calliotissa.In a field close to this church I found several Hellenic blocks and a large mortar or basin made ofordinary stone. These remains had been recentlydug up. On the shore of the harbour of Vathy, Rossfound ruins of built tombs, most of them vaulted.To the N.W. of Encremea is Castello, where Iwas told there were Hellenic walls, supposed to bethose of a Greek acropolis. I had not time to visitthis place. From the number of ancient remains inthe valley of Vathy, it is evident that a town musthave stood here, probably on the plateau where I320 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESremarked the Hellenic wall. The fertility of thisvalley and the convenience of the harbour of Vathywould account for the choice of this site. Hereprobably stood one of the three towns in this islandmentioned by Pliny.14XXIX.MYTILENE, March 20, 1855.Ar length I have succeeded in getting away fromCalymnos, where I was detained so long that I gotutterly weary of such a monotonous life . You cannot imagine any isolation more complete than thatofan European compelled to sojourn in such an islandin winter time. It is something like living at thebottom of a well and seeing the same bit of sky everyday. The winter has been an unusually severe one.The house I lived in, though once the residence of aGreek archbishop, was a wretched squalid barrackwith no glass in the windows. The roof being flatand covered with earth, the rain in wet weatherdripped through on to my pillow. There being nofireplace, I could only keep myself warm by coweringover an earthen pan just 8 inches in diameter filledwith charcoal.After standing all day watching my workmen inthe field, I was generally obliged to take an activepart in the cooking of my own supper, in whichI had the assistance of my trusty Albanian cavass.To obtain every day wholesome food and fuel wasIN THE LEVANT. 321a business requiring much forethought and trouble;and the absolute necessity of exerting myself inorder to exist kept my mind from the utter stagnation into which it would otherwise have fallen ,from the extreme monotony and eventless characterof the life I led . My communications with the outerworld of civilization were carried on by stray caiqueswhich sometimes wandered about the Archipelago formany days unable to pass Cape Crio, but which ultimately succeeded in conveying to me huge packets ofletters and newspapers from Rhodes, containing theonly authentic intelligence of what was passing in theCrimea which ever reached the island of Calymnos.Christmas and New-year's-day were particularlydoleful times to me. These festivals are celebratedbythe Greeks twelve days after ours; and for abouta fortnight we had a series of processions and feasts,in which the population take the greatest delight,but which were singularly tiresome to an indifferentspectator.The constant recurrence of festivals, in whichperfect idleness is enforced on the whole population,made the progress of the excavations very slow.My labourers were anxious to work as many days inthe week as they could; but the Archbishop intimated to them one morning through a priest, thatthey must on no account work on any feast- day, ofwhich there were constantly two in each week.Bread was so dear, that this restriction was a greathardship to the poor. Fasts are kept in Calymnoswith extraordinary rigour. When the caique wasshipwrecked in which my former letter was sent,Y322 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIEStwo of the passengers were drowned; the rest, whohappened to be Franks, were fished out of the waterand brought more dead than alive on shore into thehouse of a rich Greek merchant. It was bitterlycold December weather, and the Italian doctor, onbeing called in to restore the half-drowned survivors, immediately ordered some substantial foodto be prepared for them. Their host then observedthat, as it was one of the most strict fasts in thewhole year, he had the greatest scruple in allowinganimal food to be cooked in his house; but that, asa great favour, he would allow them a broth madeof butter stirred round in hot water.The feeling that one is alone in a Greek community, who look upon us as heretics, is more depressing even than absolute solitude. The sympathywith which certain people in England regard theEastern Christians is by no means reciprocated by theGreeks, who, if led on by Russia, would be capableof a crusade against Western Europe. So far asI have observed, wherever Roman Catholics arefound isolated in Greek communities, they are moreor less exposed to insults and annoyances, as nonconformists to the religious discipline of the place.The Italian doctor here during the last great fastventured to eat meat every day. This was anoffence not to be forgiven. Stones and pieces ofiron were thrown over the wall of his courtyard,with the remark that he might as well eat them asmeat in Lent. One of these pieces of iron struck,his wife on the breast; and the family were kept insuch constant fear that the doctor, being the pos-IN THE LEVANT. 323sessor of a British passport, appealed to me forprotection. I had no jurisdiction whatever in theisland; but I did not hesitate to summon theDemarchia to my own house; and, rather to my surprise, they came. I remonstrated with them in verydecided language, and told them that, after so muchhad been done by the Western powers for the protection of the Christians in the East, no one sect ofChristians would be permitted to annoy or persecuteanother, and that religious toleration was the principle which we were resolved to maintain in theTurkish empire. The sleek primates listened withan air of extreme contrition, and apologized for theinsult offered to the Italian doctor, which, they said,had been the work of some boys. I remember,when the Turks at Rhodes last year took to menacing the Christians, the same excuse was offered.It is always the children who are put forward onthese occasions in the Levant to commence a warof petty insults and annoyances.About the time when this took place, I madeanother not very agreeable discovery.On myfirst arrival at Calymnos, I asked the most respectable inhabitants of the place to recommend me aperson as foreman of my workmen. I was accordingly introduced to an individual called Manolithe Cassiote, who, I was assured, was a ríos τίμιοςǎvgwлos, an honourable man, as Antony says ofBrutus. Manoli the Cassiote, at the time of myarrival, occupied the distinguished position ofcavass, or chief constable of the whole community.He was a man over six feet high, of HerculeanY 2324 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESframe, and great activity. When he stood amongmy workmen, he overtopped them all like Saul, andhe surpassed them in intelligence as much as inbodily stature. He had been much at sea, and hadbeen tossed about the Mediterranean and the BlackSea from Marseilles to Odessa; every now and thenhe recounted little romantic bits of his adventurouslife, from which I inferred that his Odyssey musthave been a singular one, —a suspicion which wasfurther confirmed by the study of his countenance,which to my mind was one of the most diabolicalI ever beheld.He was always armed to the teeth with a longgun, a formidable knife, and a brace of pistols.When I first took him into my service, I beggedhim to prevent any one from visiting the placeswhere I was excavating at such times as work wasnot going on there. "Make yourself quite easy onthat subject, " said my friend Manoli; " I have toldall the boys that if I catch any of them in ourdiggings I shall put a ball through them. " Thequiet way in which he said this, and the profoundrespect with which all the inhabitants, from theArchbishop downwards, treated him, made me feelthat Manoli the Cassiote was no common man;that he had a mysterious influence in the place,which, so long as it was exerted in my behalf,would be particularly favourable to the success ofthe expedition.One day, during a temporary cessation of thediggings, I thought of making a visit to theopposite coast of Asia Minor and taking ManoliIN THE LEVANT. 325with me. On mentioning this project to one of thehighly respectable gentlemen who had recommendedhim to me, he let out that Manoli could not goquite where he liked about the Turkish empire;that, in fact, having been concerned in a little affairof vendetta some years ago at Cos, he was an outlaw.On making further inquiries, I learnt the particularsof the crime for which he had been so outlawed.It happened that travelling in Cos about a yearago I slept one night at a wayside house, whichstands near the sea-shore at some distance fromany village. My host was a lonely old man, with nocompanion but a daughter about nineteen years old.I asked if he had no other family, when he told mehow, some years ago, while he was absent at Constantinople, two Calymniotes, one of whom hadbeen his servant, landed at Cos suddenly in thenight, and murdered his wife and all his children ,except the daughter, who being then about nineyears old hid herself under a rug. The murderersbeing alarmed at the approach of some neighbours,tried to make off before they had time to plunderthe house; and, whether by design or accident, inthe confusion of their flight one of them shot hisaccomplice and then escaped. " And what becameof him? " I asked, and was told that he got back toCalymnos, that when the Turkish police came toarrest him, he concealed himself in the mountainswith the connivance of the local authorities; and thathe had remained at Calymnos ever since.I little thought, when I listened to this tale ofhorror, that one of the perpetrators of the deed326 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESwould one day be in my employ; but so it was.The murderer who escaped in so singular a mannerwas Manoli the Cassiote.This very unwelcome discovery explained to mewhy the chief constable of Calymnos is treatedwith such profound respect by the authorities andpeople of his island . He is one of those men who,by a combination of great natural force of characterand physical strength, has succeeded in puttinghimself above the law. No one in Calymnos darestake the initiative of bringing him to justice. Heis in league with a band of about twenty desperatecharacters, whom he calls the police of Calymnos,who patrol the streets at night, and take care thatnobody commits any act of violence except withthe full knowledge and consent of the head constable. Now and then, this functionary, findinghimself in want of ready money, favours some richGreek of his acquaintance with a visit, and requestsa loan, which, it is hardly necessary to observe,is never refused; for the consequences of the refusalwould be such as few would care to encounter.Last year, about the month of May, Calymnos wassuddenly invaded by a band of pirates from Samos,about thirty in number. This small party beingwell armed, and choosing for the moment of theirattack a time when the greater part of the malepopulation was absent for the sponge-fishery, surprised and captured the lower town in open day,and sacked the houses and magazines of all therichest merchants without meeting with the smallestresistance. Acting on Robin Hood's principle,they invited the poor of Calymnos to a share ofIN THE LEVANT. 327their booty, and then went on their way back toSamos rejoicing. Manoli the Cassiote, when hetold me this story, observed, with a grim smile,that such an invasion ought never to have happened, and that the Calymniotes well deserved theloss they sustained for not taking his advice. " Ioffered," said the head- constable, " to protect theisland during the summer months, on condition ofreceiving an increase of salary. The primatesrefused my demand; and see what happened. "In Italy, in the 16th century, Manoli the Cassiote would have made an accomplished bravo; andin the service of such a man as the Don Roderigoof the Promessi Sposi, would have distinguishedhimself above his fellows; for there is in his character a happy mixture of cunning and audacity.In the Greek revolution he would have been equallyrenowned as an Archipelago pirate; for his naturalelement is the sea.Living as he does in the midst of a communitywhich is slowly emerging out of lawlessness andcrime into the state of order engendered by regularindustry and commercial prosperity, he seems singularly out of place. Every well-disposed and respectable person in Calymnos would be delightedto get rid of Manoli the Cassiote, because thissort of cut-throat represents that kleftic elementwhich, having once predominated in the Archipelago,is now gradually giving way to civilization; butnobody has the courage to " bell the cat."It is difficult to find an excuse for this pusillanimous fear of one man in a population of 10,000persons. It may readily be conceived that in the first328 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESinstance hatred of their Turkish rulers led theCalymniotes to screen a known murderer fromjustice; but why was it necessary to elect himhead- constable, -to invest him with all the outwardsigns of respectability, to pay him a high salary,and to permit him to levy black mail as much ashe pleases?I was told that this is not the only case in whichthe Calymniotes have deliberately harboured murderers, nor is Calymnos the only place in theTurkish Archipelago where such felons are allowedto dwell in happy impunity.In towns like Rhodes or Mytilene, where Pashasand Consuls reside, the authors of great crimesseldom venture to show in public; but in the smaller.islands and in the seaports of Asia Minor thereare generally to be found among the population oneor more known murderers, who, like Manoli theCassiote, contrive to maintain a very respectableposition in society. It is in vain that the Greekstry to civilize themselves by schools and commerce,so long as they permit this canker of unpunishedcrime to remain in their communities.145The unpleasant discovery as to the real characterof Manoli the Cassiote was made by me at thebeginning of the month of February, after he hadbeen a long time in my employ. Immediatelyafterwards, the old Ionian in whose house I lodgedcame to me with a face of utter consternation, withthe intelligence that the whole allied army was cutoff to a man in the Crimea.I had had no letters or newspapers for a wholemonth; and the last mail had brought me news ofIN THE LEVANT. 329the battle of Inkermann; so that it was not withouta shudder that I received this rumour from myIonian host. He had drawn me aside from myworkmen, so that our conversation might not beoverheard; and from the dismayed expression ofhis countenance, I inferred that he did not feel atall reassured as to my personal safety if the newswere true. I had then a considerable sum ofmoney in my house, and thought that if the peoplewere to rise, depose their Turkish Governor, anddeclare their independence, which they wouldprobably have done had the news been confirmed ,it would not be an easy matter to get out of Calymnos in safety. However, I put a bold face on thematter, and assured the Ionian that the news couldby no possibility be true, or I should have had anexpress to announce it from the Consul at Rhodes.As the time drew on for bringing the expeditionto a close, I found that the quantity of inscriptionsand other spoils from the tombs and diggings wouldform a cargo too bulky to be contained in anycaique; and it was not easy to find a seaworthy shipat Calymnos to take me and my hardly-earnedfreight to Rhodes, in a season so uncertain as thevernal equinox. Lord Stratford relieved me frommy difficulty by persuading the Turkish Government to send me a war steamer then stationed inthe Archipelago.Having had notice that I might shortly expectthis steamer, I closed my diggings at the Temple ofApollo; and reserving only a very small party ofworkmen, made one more venture in the districtof Damos, in a field lying between the church called330 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESProphet Elia and the Temple of Apollo. My onlyreason for trying this field was its vicinity to that ofJanni Sconi.I commenced digging in a spot where the outlineof two graves might be still distinctly traced onthe surface of a footpath. While I was at work, aGreek, whom I had never seen before, came up tome. “ I think, " he said, " if you dig here " (pointingto one of the graves) , " you will find somethinggood. " I took his advice; and the workmen hadhardly broken the ground with their pickaxes, beforethey found a small circular ornament in bronze sofinely wrought that I was at once led to hope forsome work of art of a better quality than what I hadbeen discovering.I therefore immediately took the pickaxes fromthe hands of my workmen, and made them scratchthe ground with the small scraping-irons which wewere in the habit of using. I very soon found threemore of these bronze disks, the handle of a largebronze vase with rich floral ornaments, and lastly,at the very bottom of the grave, but not more thaneight inches below the surface, a beautiful bronzegroup in high relief, representing Boreas carryingoff Oreithyia. This group forms the subject ofplate 15. Boreas is represented with buskinsand large wings as a wind-god; Oreithyia seemsto be looking back to the world from which she issnatched away.Standing over the grave with this group in myhand, I thought of the Eurydice of the fourthGeorgic: -"Invalidasque tibi tendens, heu! non tua, palmas. "M. Nowen tel.BOREAS CARRYING OFF OREITHYIARELIEFFROM BRONZE HYDRIA.Land. Patlished by Day & Son.ath to the QueenPlate 15F.Buford,Sheng

IN THE LEVANT. 331Two other smaller bronze handles were foundwith these remains; and it was evident that thewhole had belonged to a large hydria of the samemetal, the body of which had decayed, all but themouth, which on account of its greater solidity hadnot been decomposed.The bronze group had been placed at the lowerinsertion of the principal handle. It is in embossedor repoussé work, and had been anciently gilt. WhenI found it, minute portions of gilding were stilladhering to the hair of the female figure; and theearth of the grave, on being sifted, yielded manyparticles of gold leaf. The composition of thisrelief is exceedingly beautiful, the execution ratherinferior to the design; and we miss in it the refinement and delicacy of modelling which distinguishesthe bronzes of Siris in the British Museum beyondall other works of the same kind. However,bronzes in embossed work of a good period areso exceedingly rare that the group of Boreas andOreithyia may fairly rank among the most preciousobjects of this class which have been discovered.Sifting the earth, I found a number of smallpearls and other fragments of a necklace. Thepresence of these remains shows that thethat of a female; and the subject of the bronzegroup was probably selected to commemorate allusively the untimely fate of the person in whose graveit was found; just as in ancient sarcophagi we oftenfind repeated the Death of Meleager, the Rape ofProserpine, and other kindred subjects, suitable forthe commemoration of the death of the young.grave wasOn my making this remarkable discovery, the332 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESGreeks present congratulated me with the mostunfeigned satisfaction, all, except the proprietor ofthe field. He became utterly downcast, and wassuddenly troubled with doubts as to the boundariesof his property; and when he found on which sideof the footpath I intended to pursue my diggings,declared that the ownership of that half of the fieldhad always been a matter of dispute between himand his father-in-law. This statement was evidentlyan invention of the moment, put forth as theground of a lawsuit, in case I discovered a greattreasure.How I should have disposed of this unexpecteddifficulty I know not, but just at this moment amessenger came up from the harbour in hothaste, to tell me that the Turkish steamer whichwas to take me away had arrived, and that,the anchorage being dangerous, the captain wasanxious that I would embark as soon as possible.Here was an end of all my excavations, just at themoment when I seemed to have hit upon the trackof a more promising part of the cemetery; but theopportunity of getting away safely was one which Iwas not likely to have again; so I reluctantly leftthe scene of my last discovery, and embarked withall haste.Before I left Calymnos, the Greek who had recommended me to dig in that particular spot waitedon me for a bakshish, and told me that about twentyyears ago he opened that very grave in the earlymorning, and without the permission of the owner,who surprised him at his work. He would not tell.me what he had found in it; but I gathered fromIN THE LEVANT. 333his manner that it had contained gold ornaments.It would appear, then, that, being interrupted beforehe had finished his work, he left the few inches ofsoil at the bottom of the grave unexplored, and thusmissed the prize which I found. Such are thechances of excavation.On leaving Calymnos in the Turkish steamer,I took the opportunity of crossing over to theopposite coast, for the purpose of visiting Budrum,which I had long wished to explore.The steamer took us rapidly across to the Asiaticshore; and after having been so long accustomedto the noisy streets of Calymnos, thronged withGreeks and pigs, it seemed strange to find myselfin the stillness and seclusion of the picturesque oldTurkish town, which stands on the site of Halicarnassus. I was very kindly received by theauthorities at Budrum, and an application to seethe interior of the castle was instantly assented to.This castle stands on a peninsula forming oneside of the harbour, and is a fine specimen ofmilitary architecture in the 15th century.It is well known that it was built by the Knightsof St. John out of the ruins of the Mausoleum;and that twelve slabs of frieze from that famousmonument were extracted from its walls and sentto the British Museum in 1846, an acquisition forwhich the public is indebted to the influence ofLord Stratford de Redcliffe with the Porte, andnot less to the zeal and enthusiasm with which hehas always promoted archæological researches inthe Levant for the benefit of the National Collection of Sculpture and Antiquities.334 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIESIn my Memoir on the Mausoleum, in 1846,146 Ihave expressed the hope that a careful examinationof the castle might lead to the discovery of moresculptures of the Mausoleum built into the walls. Ihave never ceased to entertain this hope; but,since my arrival in Turkey, various circ*mstanceshave prevented me from visiting Budrum till thisyear. It was with a feeling of eager curiosity thatI passed over the old drawbridges, once so jealouslyguarded, into the interior of this celebrated fortress .Very few travellers had ever enjoyed this privilegebefore, —indeed , there is a story that an adventurousEnglishman once obtained a firman at Constantinople authorizing him to visit the castle; butthat on presenting it at Budrum to the commandant, he got a hint that the firman only authorizedhis entry into the castle, but said nothing abouthis exit. On walking round the ramparts on theside overlooking the harbour, I made a sudden halt.What I saw was so surprising that I could hardlybelieve the evidence of my own eyes. In theembattled wall, between the embrasures, was thehead and forehand of a colossal lion, in whitemarble, built into the masonry and looking towardsthe interior of the castle. I saw at a glance thatthis lion was the work of a Greek chisel, and thatit belonged to the finest period of ancient art.There could be but one mode of accounting forits presence in the castle, -the supposition that itoriginally formed part of the Mausoleum. Onlooking over the battlements, I saw in the face ofthe wall below, five other lions, inserted at intervalsas ornaments, all of the finest white marble; andIN THE LEVANT. 335in another part of the castle two more, placed oneach side of an escutcheon as supporters.On making this most interesting discovery, I felt,as you may suppose, much surprise that these lionshad never, to my knowledge, been noticed by anyof the English travellers who had visited Budrum.The reliefs in the walls of the castle were drawn insitu by Dalton in the last century, and by CaptainDevereux a few years back;147 and the gentlemencharged with the removal of these pieces of friezein 1846 were engaged in that operation for a wholemonth, during which time they must have had the336 TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES, ETC.opportunity of seeing these lions every day. Whetherthey supposed them to be medieval or TurkishI cannot say, but they seem to have consideredthese sculptures of too little account to be worthdrawing public attention to.On referring to Ross's travels, I found that hehad not failed to observe these lions on his visit toBudrum, and though he only got a distant view ofthem from a boat, at once guessed that theybelonged to the Mausoleum. On leaving Budrum,I took the first opportunity of reporting this discovery to Lord Stratford, and I have no doubt thathe will take advantage of the first favourable occasion to obtain a firman from the Porte.From Budrum we returned to Mytilene, anchoringon our way at Chesmah, opposite Scio, where Iinquired for coins of the neighbouring city ofErythræ, but without success.We arrived at our destination after a very prosperous voyage. It was fortunate that we had fineweather the whole way; for, as I had no means ofpacking the inscriptions at Calymnos, they werestowed away in the hold of the ship like so muchballast.APPENDIX.us.A TOUR IN LYCIA BY MR. D. E. COLNAGHI.Thursday, March 16, 1854.-Accompanied by Mr. A. Berg, leftRhodes this evening in a sailing vessel for Castel Rosso, on ourway to Lycia. A favourable breeze carried us on briskly, so thatwe soon left the moonlit towers and walls of the old town behindCastel Rosso, the ancient Megiste, is a small island, situatedabout sixty miles east of Rhodes, and very near the coast ofAsia Minor. The town is placed partly on a promontory, whichjuts out into the sea, and partly at the end of the bay formed bythis cape and the opposite coast of Asia. On the summit ofthe promontory is a fine old castle built of a red stone, amemorial of the time when the Knights of Rhodes possessed theisland. The houses of the modern town are mostly built of thesame red stone, and present a very picturesque appearance. Thepopulation of the island is from six to seven thousand. Themen are nearly all sailors, and a fair number of vessels belong to theisland. Though rich and prosperous, the Casteloriziotes bear a badcharacter, and are noted pirates. The island, which is about 18miles in circumference, is very barren, being formed of ruggedlimestone mountains. The only water the inhabitants drink iscollected in cisterns outside the town.On the mountain side, by the harbour, is a small Doric rocktomb. I walked to the top of the mountain behind the town.On the summit are two or three Greek chapels, and the remainsof a medieval fortress. To the left of the fortress are the remainsof some Hellenic walls, composed of large and beautifully squaredblocks of limestone. The ruins seem to form the corner towerof a walled enceinte; the rest of the building is buried under amound of earth. There are several cisterns within these fortifications, and a well, the only one on the island. I now crossed themountain ridge, and descending between two hills into a smallᏃ338 APPENDIX.valley, found a small medieval tower, now used as a chapel. Ina valley beyond this were some carefully squared Hellenic blocks,near which is a monastery. We then rounded the hill. On theplain were several ancient blocks, and by the mountain side theremains of a built tomb for two people. It must have been alofty structure, but, even while I was there, some boys were engagedin breaking up the blocks and carrying them away for some moremodern building.Saturday, 18th. -From Castel Rosso to Antiphellus (Antiphilo)is a pleasant sail across a land- locked bay. Before us rose thefine mountainous coast of Asia Minor, with the beautiful baysof Vathy (the deep) and Sevedo; behind us were the rockymountains of Castel Rosso. As we passed on, we made out firstthe ruins of the theatre, then some Hellenic walls, and as weneared the shore groups of sarcophagi were visible.The modern village of Antiphilo consists of a few cottages andstorehouses for the Valonea which is brought down for exportation from the forest of Enium. The ancient ruins consist of thetheatre, which is of Hellenic architecture, and contains twenty-sixrows of well- finished seats. It is built of large squared blocks oflimestone well fitted together, and has no proscenium. Large limestone sarcophagi are scattered all over the valley: sometimes theyare hewn out of the rock itself. The only ornament on them is asquare tablet with a Greek inscription, setting forth the nameand titles of the deceased, whose bones have long since been scattered to the winds, for all these sarcophagi have been broken open.On the side of the hill facing the sea are two rock tombs-one issquare, and entirely hewn out of the rock. On either side, as youenter the tomb, is the couch for the dead, having an ornament inbas-relief round the recess. At the head of the tomb is a frieze oflittle figures about 6 inches high, holding each other's hands.other tomb is cut out in the ordinary Lycian style, with a projecting roof. The rock is cut so as to represent a beam supported on logs of wood, an imitation, probably, of the ordinaryhouses of the period. The houses ofthe modern peasants, in manyinstances, are built on the same plan. Below, on the front of thetomb, panels are cut in the rock with projecting mullions on eitherside. On this tomb is an inscription in Lycian as well as Greek.In the valley near Port Vathy are two more tombs; the largestof Ionic, the second of Lycian character. To the east of themodern village are other groups of sarcophagi in picturesque posiTheAPPENDIX. 339One tions, and, where the rock permits, a tomb is hollowed out.sarcophagus towers above the rest it is of limestone, supportedon a hollow pedestal, on which is a long Lycian inscription . Thesarcophagus is plain, except at either side, where it is panelled.In the panels of the lid are bas-reliefs . The knobs, which areusually left on the lids of sarcophagi, are here sculptured intolions' heads. There is a fine group of rock tombs on the mountainbehind the village. One has an arched roof, and has a Gothiclook; the front is cut into panels. A Roman and a Lycianinscription are cut over the portal, but they have no connection the one with the other. From this point the view ismagnificent across the bay rises the rock of Castel Rosso;on the right, surrounded by lofty mountains covered with darkgreen shrubs, lies Port Vathy; on the low hills below are therock tombs, the theatre, and picturesque groups of sarcophagi; onthe left the promontory which forms Sevedo Bay sweeps boldlyround.Tuesday, 21st. - From Antiphellus to Cyaner is a ride of aboutseven or eight hours. The road leads in an easterly direction overthe mountain behind the village. The vegetation in the valleysand ravines we passed was luxuriant, but the mountainsrocky and barren. The country soon becomes more open, andwe passed several encampments of Yuruks, or nomad Turks.They live in tents formed of bent twigs covered with skins,matting, or branches, or else in little wooden huts raised onpoles above the ground, and with a door about 2 feet high, throughwhich they manage to creep. They encamp in the winter in thevalleys, and in summer remove with their flocks and herds to themountains. They seem a simple and hospitable people. Thewomen do not veil their faces, but wear a loose cloth veil whichfalls on the shoulders over a high turban. Sometimes this veilis tucked round the face under the chin as a protection againstthe sun.At the end of a valley about three hours from Antiphilo wefound a single sarcophagus, with a Greek inscription much defaced.Crossing a low hill, and passing two cisterns, we soon reached theend ofthe mountain. Below us lay an immense fertile plain, andbeyond it mountain rose above mountain, the highest peaks ofwhich were thickly covered with snow. We descended part ofthe way down the mountain, but, instead of coming to the plain,turned off to the east, and passed through a small stony valleyZ 2340 APPENDIX.separated by a range of hills from the plain. In an open space nearthis we saw some plain limestone sarcophagi with inscriptions.Hence we descended into a fertile plain, and passed by the village ofSarla, about ten minutes distant from which we observed the ruinsof a medieval building. We now ascended a small gorge betweentwo hills, with pine trees on either side. This soon opened into aplain, and on a mountain opposite we saw the ruins of one of thethree cities of Cyaneæ. The fields were covered with a little blueflower, from which the name of Cyaneæ (кvávɛa) may have beenderived. Jaghù is a small village situated in a little valley beneaththe ruined city, where we halted.Wednesday, 22nd. -From Jaghù the road to Cyanea is by asteep and stony mountain path. In parts the road is ancient, and,half- way up, cut in the rock, on the right hand side of the pathway, is a small bas-relief representing two groups of horses. In the upper division are two standing still; in the lower, one galloping towards another standing still. This bas-relief is much defaced.There are three rock tombs-mere holes cut in the rock just above this bas- relief. A little further on we came to a group of sarcophagi of the Roman period. One of them is much ornamented;the lid is cut so as to represent overlapping leaves. In a fewminutes more we reached the walls of the city, which are for themost part Byzantine or medieval. The foundations of the housesand the directions of some of the streets of the old city can still bemade out, though the whole is thickly overgrown with brushwood.There are some large vaulted buildings, and the walls and doorsof temples formed of large blocks of limestone beautifully squared.One gateway is very beautiful, ornamented with a rich pattern ofthe Roman period. The ground is strewn with columns flutedand plain, dentils, and fragments of all kinds, including one or twoinscriptions. None of the ruins inside the city walls appear to beof earlier date than the Roman empire. Outside the city gates onthe north side of the hill the walls are partly of Hellenic masonry.On a lower hill is a long street of tombs, with sarcophagi picturesquely placed in the midst of brushwood. Here are also theruins of some large public buildings. The theatre is situated onthe south face of the lower hill; it is of Greek form, and measures165 feet in diameter; there are twenty- four rows of seats, twelveabove the diazoma, ten are visible below it.On the perpendicular and rocky side of the city hill which facesthe south are many rock tombs. Among them a group of threeAPPENDIX. 341together is remarkable. They consist of a square tomb with aprojecting front between two arched tombs; the rock out of whichthey are cut is painted blue and red. Close to these is arock tomb and sarcophagus. The tomb is a square one, and is cutout of the solid rock; the sarcophagus is placed on it. In thepanels of the lid are bas- reliefs, on one side a draped male figureseated, on the other a draped female figure with a girl standingbefore her and holding her by the hand. The knobs on the roofare sculptured into lions' heads. A little to the right, below these,is a very fine Ionic tomb, cut in the red limestone. It consists ofa portico surmounted by a pediment, supported in the centre by agraceful Ionic column. The front inside the portico is panelled inthe usual way. On the architrave above the door is a long andwell- preserved Greek inscription of a good period. Above thetomb is a small sarcophagus.Friday, 24th. -From Jaghù to Deriaghassy, * at the mouth ofthe Dembra Gorge, the road leads over the mountains in aneasterly direction; the fields at first covered with the little blueflowers we had observed on approaching Cyaneæ. In about twohours and a half we reached the end of the mountains on this side,and began to descend into a magnificent plain, through which asilver river wound its way; on its banks fine myrtles and oleanderswere growing. Beyond, the dark and stern-looking mountains inthe distance formed a fine contrast with this rich plain. In aboutthree hours from the top of the mountain, and having crossed theriver, which was both wide and deep, we reached the water-millwhere we intended to take up our quarters.The cathedral at Deriaghassy is a fine building of Byzantinearchitecture, and rises in solitary grandeur from the plain. Allthe interior decoration is gone, but the walls remain, and the planof the church is still perfect. The porch, the pronaos, the bodyof the church covered with a dome, the apsis, and the stairs whichled to the women's gallery, may all be traced. Baptisteries ofoctagon shape stand on the north and south side. An accurateplan of this cathedral is given by Spratt and Forbes (Lycia,i. p. 105) , so I contented myself with making a few photographsof the interior.On a summit of a lofty mountain at the mouth of the DembraGorge are the ruins of a small city. The greater part of the walls

• Called Tchesemay in Spratt's Map of Lycia.

342 APPENDIX.are Byzantine or medieval, but there are some remains of Cyclopean and Hellenic architecture. The view from the top of themountain looks down on one side to the dark and grand gorge, onthe other across the plain. There are two or three rock tombs onthe sides of the mountain, and two rock tombs and a sarcophaguscut out in a point of rock behind the mill.Tuesday, 28th. From Deriaghassy we proceeded to Myra, aboutseven hours' journey, on camels. We passed through the DembraGorge; the river was too full and rapid to permit of our proceeding on horseback. We crossed and re-crossed the stream at leasttwenty times. The scenery was very grand. At one place themountains are rocky and barren, at another covered with shrubsand trees; at intervals fine pine- trees lined the path near the riverbank. Sometimes the mountains curved in on either side, thuswidening the gorge; at others spurs of the hills stretched outnearly across the narrow ravine. We saw three bears, a motherand two cubs, gently trotting along the side of a barren mountain. We halted at a mill near the centre of the gorge, not farfrom which are some ancient ruins. In six hours we reached theend of the defile. A ruined Hellenic watch-tower commands theentrance on the left. We took up our lodgings at the Monasteryof St. Nicholas, about an hour further on, in the plain of Myra.It is situated in the centre of a large square, formed of walls composed of large cushioned blocks of stone of the Roman period;each wall is about 300 feet in length. Spratt conjectures thatthis building may have been an agora or market-place. The twogateways face the sea and the ancient port. The monastery formerly contained the bones of St. Nicholas, the patron of Greeksailors; but these relics were taken away by the Russians duringthe Greek revolution, the Emperor Nicholas sending in exchangea portrait of the saint, which is placed in the church and held indue veneration. The old priest who attended to the church, andwas well known to travellers, died six months before our arrival.The ruins of Myra are most interesting, but are well known.The theatre is situated on the western edge of the plain at thefoot of the mountain, and close to a fine group of rock tombs.It is an immense building, the diameter of which, accordingto Mr. co*ckerell, is 360 feet. It is of the Roman period: nearlyall the seats are perfectly preserved, and on either side are vaultedentrances, through which galleries conducted the spectator to thebody of the building. Part of the proscenium is preserved. The

DECelnaghi,PhotogMYRA ROCK TOMBLondon Pablished by Day & Son, Liths to the QueenPlate 16ernAPPENDIX. 343doorways have a rich ornament round the architraves and lintels,of the same character as that on the temple gate at Cyaneæ.The column standing at the side of the proscenium has a richCorinthian capital.The rock tombs at Myra are divided into two groups, —thoseby the theatre, and those on the side of the mountain leadingto the entrance of the Dembra Gorge. The first group is veryrich-tomb rises above tomb halfway up the mountain side. Someof the tombs have pediments and bas- reliefs, others again are ofthe simple Lycian form, with projecting roofs, panels, and mullions.(See Plate 16. ) One or two stand entirely out from the rock.Inside the portico of a large tomb, called by Spratt " The Lover'sTomb," of the Lycian form, the following inscription is roughlyscratched on the wall:-MOCXOC IAEI IAICTANΤΗΝ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ."Moschus loves Philiste the (daughter) of Demetrius. ”The second group contains those tombs with sculptures so fullydescribed by Sir Charles Fellows, in his interesting work on Lycia.Among these tombs is a fine one with a pedimental façade of theIonic order. The body of the tomb is entered by a squaredoorway, on either side of which is a square half-column withmullions, which have been surmounted by a lion's head.Beyond these were round columns; above the doorway runs afrieze of draped male and female figures, reclining and standing invarious attitudes-apparently a funereal subject. The sculpturesare of a good period. On the pediment is sculptured, in lowrelief, a spirited combat between a Lycian lion and a bull: thelion has seized his adversary by the neck, and the bull is buttingat him with his horns.The Turkish burial-ground near the small village in the plain isfull of ancient fragments.Passing above the second group of rock tombs, and having ascended a few steps cut in the rock, we came to a wall composed ofHellenic blocks, which supports the narrowpathway; a little furtheron are more steps, and a small sarcophagus cut out of the rock.On the rock on the left are some niches. The top of the mountainis reached by a steep and stony path on the north side. On thesummit is a castle of an oblong form, and, for the most part,344 APPENDIX .of medieval architecture; but here and there are the remains ofCyclopean walls. The square tower on the north-west side ispartly built of large square blocks. The whole length of thecastle is about 180 paces.Monday, April 3rd.-From Myra we proceeded in a countryboat to Deliktash. We embarked from a little bay; on the promontory which formed it are the ruins of a Byzantine watch-toweror lighthouse. Till sunset the wind favoured us, but, as it failedthen, we lay to for the night in a beautiful little creek, this side ofCape Chelidonia. In the morning we doubled the cape and enteredthe Gulf of Pamphylia. At noon we passed the Bay of Adrasan,with its fine pine-covered mountains, and soon after saw MountChimera with its snow- capped summit towering among the clouds.We anchored near Deliktash at 3 P.M. There are only two orthree huts near the shore, inhabited by Greeks. The Yooroukvillage, situated about ten minutes from the shore, consists of afew wicker tents covered with skins, and two or three huts. Thereis a large export of pine-wood from this place-either in planks orlogs.Wednesday, 5th. —The road to the Chimæra fire lay across theplain, over a winding stream by the Yoorouk village. Near theburial-ground, which is filled with ancient fragments, we found twosarcophagi hollowed out of the rock; one full size , the other for achild. We still passed along the plain through the most luxuriantvegetation; carubtrees, and myrtle and laurel bushes abounded. Inabout half an hour we came to a point where the level ground isterminated bythe mountains, which on one side are of limestone, onthe other of serpentine. The hill sides were covered with beautifulshrubs, and there were several varieties of orchids among the wildflowers. We ascended the mountain side on the left, rather beforecoming to the den ofthe plain, and in a quarter of an hour arrivedat the remains of a Byzantine chapel, to which a monastery wasprobably attached. Large blocks with inscriptions, which may beportions ofthe Temple of Vulcan, are lying about, and here issuesout of the rock the Chimæra fire. The principal flame proceeds frombehind an arched opening in the rock, and smaller flames dart outfrom crevices round the larger. A second flame issues from a littlepit close by. The flame burns steadily, and was of, when we sawit, about the same volume as would issue from a moderate fireplace.It is ofa dark colour, like a wood fire. The smell resembles that ofa mixture of sulphuric ether, spirits ofwine, and iodine. The sootAPPENDIX. 345which is made by the flame is said to be good for sore eyes. Thisfire has been known to burn for 3,000 years. According to Greekmythology, it was on the lofty mountain close by that theChimera, with lion's head, goat's body, and serpent's tail, dwelt;and it was on this spot that the monster was killed by Bellerophon.The shepherds cook their dinners by this natural fire, which it isreported will not cook stolen goods. Down the side of the ravine,near the flame, there flows a beautiful little mountain stream.The ruins of the city of Olympus are situated close to the villageof Deliktash. We passed along the seashore for five minutes to thesouth till we came to a lofty rock covered with the ruins of mediæval buildings. This rock was probably the ancient acropolis.The rock here forms an arched entrance, which, when the sea ishigh, forms the only passage to the ruined city. From this rockthe modern village takes the name of Deliktash, or perforated rock.We were now in a beautiful little valley, almost choked up withbushy bay-trees, among which are the ruins of Olympus. For themost part these ruins are Byzantine or mediæval; but here andthere we saw large blocks and the foundations of ancient buildings.We at length reached a fine gateway about 18 feet high, with abeautiful ornament round the architrave. Close by is a perfectlypreserved inscription, setting forth all the titles of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Large columns and capitals (one of the latter Imeasured 2 feet in diameter) , and other blocks are lying aboutin confusion. The inscriptions we found were mostly ByzantineOlympus flourished chiefly under the Romans.Saturday, 8th.-We now retraced oursteps, and proceeded by landto Phenika, where we took ship for Rhodes. Our road lay firstthrough the ruined city. The narrow valley in which it is situatedterminates in a fine gorge, which opens out into another valley.We turned from here to the right, leaving Mount Chimæra on ourright, and the Bay of Adrasan on our left. Sometimes we passedover an open rocky hill, and at others the road led through lanesof laurel; then we reached a fountain by a plane-tree, near which abody of Yoorouks were encamped under a tuft of cypresses. Onthe mountain side was a rock tomb. After an ascent of two hoursand a half we reached the top of the mountain, and, passingthrough the pine woods which cover the summit, had a magnificentview of the Plain of Phenika, bounded on three sides by mountains,on the fourth by the sea. We saw the ruins of Rhodiopolis in thedistance.346 APPENDIX.In two hours more we emerged on to the plain, and had afatiguing ride to Armootlee. From Armootlee we crossed a riverover a long stone bridge, and passed along the road by the mountain side. Here were several rock tombs. Near this spot is thesource of a stream which issues in its full volume from the earth.We now pass more rock tombs, and at length reach the ruins ofLimyra. Here is a fine theatre, resembling the one at Myra, onlysmaller. A little further on is the walled town. The city wallsare of Byzantine architecture, but in part composed of ancientblocks. The plain near Phenika has a rich and beautiful aspect,and is well cultivated in parts, but the miasma renders this district deadly in summer. Even now at this season the heat wasexcessive.At the Port of Phenika is a dilapidated modern fortress. Thelower part of the square tower and part of the walls are of Hellenic architecture. Phenika is the port of the Turkish town ofAlmalee. Valonea is loaded here for Europe.Tuesday, 11th. -Sailed for Rhodes, where we did not arrive tillthe 18th, owing to contrary winds.The district of Asia Minor which we visited is at present in avery bad state. The greater part of the country is in the handsof the Zebecks, or mountain robbers, and in many cases the localauthorities have left their posts. On the mountains near AlmaleeNear Adalia, on the Gulf of Pamhave killed a Moriote merchant.a band of 80 Zebecks are out.phylia, some of these robbersAt Daliani, nearly opposite Rhodes, the country is in thehands of a band of 400 Zebecks, commanded by Ali Bey, son ofthe Aga of Chorgies, who has quarrelled with the other agasof the district, and is consequently in rebellion. In the skirmishes that have taken place, the authorities, in most instances,have been worsted. A boat sent from Rhodes to Phenika by amerchant, to pay for some corn, with £400 on board, was attackedby pirates near Myra, and the money taken. The same band,seventeen in number, the day before yesterday attacked and sunka small boat from the island of Symi, and murdered the crew.There is great scarcity of food in the country. At Daliani thepeople would not let a Sardinian merchant load a cargo of corn,but threatened to kill him if he persisted .Though the weather was not favourable during great part ofour journey, I have been enabled to take about thirty photographs-at Antiphellus, Cyane , and Myra.APPENDIX . 347A TOUR IN MYTILENE BY MR. D. E. COLNAGHI,IN 1854.ON the 20th of April last, I made a little excursion on thenorthern coast of the island, accompanied by the dragoman of theConsulate. We slept the first night at Mandamatha, whence weproceeded to Molivo, taking Mount Lepethymnos in our route. Wepassed through the villages of Kappi, the inhabitants of which arechiefly Turks, and Gelia, where we took a guide for the ascent ofMount Lepethymnos. After climbing up a steep and stony roadfor about an hour, we reached the summit, which is formed of twopeaks, of which the highest, according to the Admiralty chart, is2,750 feet, rising like a tower out of the rest of the hill. Here isa little Greek chapel, but we looked in vain for any ancientremains.On this mountain in antiquity was a temple dedicated to thehero Palamedes, who is said to have been buried here. A templeof Apollo and a shrine of the hero Lepethymnos also stood here.The view from the summit is very fine, embracing in the distanceTenedos, Imbros, Lemnos, and Samothrace. On the south aforeground of bold mountain-lines shuts out from view Port Iero.On descending, we went to Molivo, whence, taking a boat, werowed to a small rocky island opposite Petra, in the hope ofidentifying it with the ancient Antissa. Here, however, wecould find no traces of an Hellenic occupation.On the summit of the rock at Petra is a small church, in whichis a curious mediaval bas- relief with a Byzantine inscription, ofwhich the last word is BATATZI. Beneath are portraits of theperson named in the inscription. On the right are his wife andchild, on the left the Madonna and our Saviour. The Batatzimentioned in the inscription may possibly be John Ducas Batatzis,who was Emperor at Constantinople from 1222 to 1255. Nearthe church is a fountain, and two or three houses inhabited bynuns. There is a fine view from the top of this rock. Thewomen of Petra wear a curious old-fashioned head-dress, risinglike a cone from the crown of the head. The face is bound roundwith a handkerchief.348 APPENDIX.From Petra we went to Telonia, passing on our way throughthe village Skalochori. In the first part of our route we traverseda barren and mountainous country with little vegetation. In thelatter part were rocks of strange fantastic forms, mostly composedof pudding-stone.The village of Telonia is well situated on the slope of a rockymountain overlooking a fertile valley, where are the countryhouses of the rich inhabitants peeping out among the valoneaoaks. It contains about 500 families.Two hours north of the village is a ruined church dedicated to St. George, which I visited to find an inscription, which,after all, did not exist. The country through which we passedwas rich and beautiful. The slopes of the hills were coveredwith corn, and in the valleys were well- cultivated gardens.At a place called Refikia, about ten minutes from the church ofSt. George, but nearer the sea, is a watercourse, which appears ofancient workmanship.The next day we left Telonia at 6.30 a.m., and arrived atBatousa at 8. At a short distance from Telonia we came to twolofty rocks which rose as gates in the centre of the ravine, andseemed to shut out this part of the island from the other. Wepassed through, and soon entered a beautiful valley, at the end ofwhich is Batousa, chiefly remarkable for a fine modern church.The columns in the interior had all belonged to some ancientbuilding. In this part of the country the small ponies for whichMytilene is celebrated are bred. From Batousa we went toKalloni by the Ereso road, arriving at the village of Acherona atnoon.In the afternoon I visited a bridge built across the river Prines,which flows through the plain of Kalloni to the gulf. Thebridge is about two hours distant from Acherona. It consists ofa single arch thrown across the stream; the width of the arch isnearly 40 feet. The arch is formed of blocks of rough sandstone,which are carefully fitted together without cement. The lowerblocks are cut in the rustic style. The workmanship is evidentlyRoman, of perhaps about the same date as the aqueduct at Morea.The bridge has been restored in modern times; the arch is all thatremains of the ancient structure.Near the bridge is the little chapel of St. Therapon, a medicalsaint. The country people, when ill, come here with a priest, andremain one or two days. The priest performs a mass, and theAPPENDIX . 349patient crosses himself abundantly. When he leaves, he hangs upa shred of his garment on a tree near the chapel, as a token thathis malady is left behind. A little bush close by was quitecovered with patches of old clothes. The Turks have the samesuperstition. Before the chapel is the fragment of a granitecolumn which appears in situ, and near it is a simple capital.Thursday, 28th, the Holy Thursday of the Greek Church. Onthis day we saw the Archbishop of Methymna wash the feet oftwelve priests, in commemoration of our Saviour washing thefeet of the Apostles. This rite, which is called viripa, is onlyperformed once every seven years. At an early hour in themorning all the nuns from the neighbouring convent had arrived ,and crowds of peasants from the villages were continually pouringin, all dressed in their gala clothes. The women from Eresowore white hoods with crimson borders, which hung down on theirshoulders. In the courtyard of the metropolis, or Archbishop'spalace, a stage covered with green branches had been erected, andlamps were placed in the four corners: from the centre hung abrass chandelier. At one end was the bishop's throne with acanopy of roses over his head: on either side of the platform weresix chairs. At the other end, steps led up to the stage. On oneside of the courtyard was a reading- desk, on the other a fountainwas decked with green boughs to represent a grotto. In thepalace itself, the preparations were great. Priests were tyingcandles together with particoloured ribbons; monks, in blue sergedresses, were running about with gorgeous clerical vestures in theirhands. In the passage were a crowd of laity and clergy. Thechief psalm-singer of the diocese was in his glory, collecting hischoir, and directing everybody. When the appointed hour,10 a.m., arrived, there was a general rush into the courtyard.The Reader, in a magnificent crimson silk robe, now advancedto the reading- desk, accompanied by the Psalm- singers, whosechanting continued throughout the ceremony. Twelve priests, inpairs, attended by two deacons, who held in one hand lightedcandles, in the other a censer, advanced from the palace, and tooktheir seats on the stage. They were all dressed in brilliant robes.The abbot of the neighbouring monastery, a portly personage,personated Peter; a mean, ugly-looking man represented Judas.He was dressed in green, and was distinguished from the othersby being without the black priest's cap, and only wearing thehood. Last of all came the Archbishop, preceded by three350 APPENDIX.deacons. He was dressed in a magnificent purple satin robe,richly embroidered. On his head was the round black cap andbishop's hood. His Eminence was now unrobed by the attendantdeacons, and clothed in more gorgeous garments. First, therewas a rich purple and gold robe in stripes, covered with smallflowers. Over this was thrown a blue satin surplice withdamasked flowers, bordered with a heavy gold fringe. Goldembroidered gauntlets were fastened round his wrists, and by hisside hung a square purse, embroidered with gold on a green ground.Over this he wore a white satin stole with a gold fringe. On eitherside of his breast was an enamelled miniature, representing asubject from Scripture. His mitre was next placed on his head.It resembles in shape an imperial crown, above which is a roundred cap, richly embroidered with diamonds and other preciousstones; on the top was a diamond cross. The Archbishop was afine-looking man with a long black beard, and wore his gorgeousvestments with a certain dignity.The real business of the ceremony now began. A conversationwas carried on between the Archbishop and priests, from the NewTestament, as between our Saviour and the Apostles. It endedby the Archbishop saying, " I know that one of ye shall betrayme." Each priest asked in turn, " Lord, is it I? " The deaconsthen took off the Bishop's stole, and tied an embroidered napkinround his waist; which done, one of them knelt down before therepresentative of St. Peter, with a silver basin in one hand and aewer in the other. He poured a little water over the towel,which the Archbishop, kneeling, held in his hand. His Eminencejust wetted the priest's foot, which had had a preparatory washing.The priest kissed his mitre. This was repeated to each in turn.Having resumed his robes, the Archbishop, accompanied by Peter,James, and John, left the platform. The three pretended to fallasleep, and the Bishop went to the grotto and prayed, in thewords of our Saviour. He returned thrice to the sleepers, andthen said, " Arise, let us be going." And so ended the sacreddrama. All that remained was to kiss a sacred picture of ourSaviour, exhibited by the Archbishop from the platform; andgreat was the rush of peasants to do this. Both actors andspectators seemed to witness this strange ceremony with theutmost reverence, and all went through their parts seriously andwith apparent devotion . We returned the same day to Mytilene.1NOTES.1 Engraved, C. Vassallo, Monumenti Antichi nel gruppo diMalta. Periodo Fenicio. Valletta, 1851 , p. 17.2 In E. Gerhard's Archäologische Zeitung, Berlin, 1848, pp.346-50, 362-67. See Archæologia of Soc. Ant. London, xxix.pp. 227-40, where views of these ruins are given.3 Tacit. Hist. ii. 3. Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. viii. § 8.4 Della Marmora, in Nouvelles Annales de l'Institut de Correspondance Archéologique à Rome, i . p. 18.5 G. Scharf, in Museum of Classical Antiquities, London, 1851 ,i. p. 190, where this statue is engraved.logique, mon. fig.Lebas, Voyage Archéo6 Laborde, Le Parthenon, Paris, 1848, ii . pl . 25-27.7 Revue Archéologique Paris, 1844, i . pl . i .Parthenon, ii . pl. 4.Laborde, Le8 Engraved in the Monumenti of the Roman ArchæologicalInstitute, iv. pl. 44. Annali dell' Inst. Arch. Rom. 1847 , p. 305.This statue was found at Tenea, near Corinth.9⁹ E. Gerhard, Sur les Monumens figurés existant en Grèce.Rome, 1837.10 See my remarks on these coins, Numismatic Chronicle,1854, p. 29.For a fuller account of the Amphiaraïon, see Transactionsof the Royal Society of Literature, New Series, v. pp. 107-52;Dr. Preller, Oropos und Amphiaraeion, in Berichten d. k. Sächsischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, Philol. Hist. Classe. Leipsig,1853, pp. 140-88; Rangabé, Antiquités Helléniques; Leake,Northern Greece, ii. p. 441 .12 Göttling, Neue Rhein. Mus. i. P. 161. Mure, Tour inGreece, ii . p. 167. Annali dell' Inst. Arch. Rom. xvii. p. 168.13 For the tombs at Doganlu, see J. R. Steuart, Descriptionof some Ancient Monuments in Lydia and Phrygia, London,352 NOTES.1842, and other authorities, cited K. O. Müller, Handbuch d.Archäologie d. Kunst, ed. Welcker, p. 304.14 Zosimus, Hist. ii. 30 seq., 35 seq.15 H. E. Dirksen, On the Building Act of the Emperor Zeno,Museum of Classical Antiquities, i. pp. 305-52.16 Travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquiere (translation byJohnes) , Hafod, 1807, p. 220.17 Von Hammer, Constantinopolis und d. Bosporos, Pesth,1822, i. p. 385, calls this Kahrije Djamissi, and states that it wasbuilt by Justinian and restored by Theodore Metochita, Chancellorof Andronicus I.18 For the history and topography of Lesbos, see S. L. Plehn,Lesbiacorum Liber, Berol. 1826 , an excellent work; Zander,Beiträge zur Kunde d. Insel Lesbos, Hamb. 1827; Tournefort,Voyage du Levant, Lyons, 1727, ii . pp. 81-87; Poco*cke, Description of the East, London, 1745, ii. pt. 2, pp. 15-21; Prokesch vonOsten, Denkwürdigkeiten aus dem Orient, Stuttgart, 1837, ii.pp. 771-79, iii. pp. 341-407; Boutan, Memoir sur Metelin, in theArchives des Missions Scientifiques, Paris, 1856, vol. v. pp. 273–364;Ἱστορικὸν ἐγκώμιον τῆς νήσου Λέσβου, by Stavraki Anagnostes,Smyrna, 1850. This last work, written by a native of Lesbos,contains some bad poetry in praise of the island, and a list of itsvillages, with occasional information about the antiquities.19 Strabo, xiii. p. 617. Diodor. xiii. 79. Longus, Pastoral. I.init.20 As for instance, Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Myndus. See Thucyd.i. 7.21 Strabo, xiii. p. 617.22 Aristotle. Thucyd. iii . 4, ὥρμουν ἐν τῇ Μαλέα πρὸς Βορέαν τῆςT6AEwC. Cf. 6, ibid. , and Grote, History of Greece, vi. p. 305, note 1.23 Plutarch, Vit. Pomp. 42. Longus, Pastor. , init.24 Vitruv. i. 6.25 Cic. contr. Rull. ii. 16.26 Such towers were probably used in the Greek islands from anearly period. In Andros is a round tower certainly of the Hellenic period, with five stories above a chamber in the basem*nt, aview of which is given in the folio plates to Lebas' VoyageArchéologique. See the description of it, L. Ross, Reisen auf d.Griech. Inseln, ii . p. 13. There is a similar one in Naxos (ibid.p. 43).27 Bückh, Corpus Inscript. Græc. Nos. 2172-4 .NOTES. 35328 Compare the Athenian dedication to the Nymphs by theTAUVEC, Böckh, Corp. Inscript. No. 455.29 Xenophon, Hist. Græc. i. 6.30 Thucyd. iii. 3.31 Poco*cke, ii. pt. 2, p. 15. Böckh, C. I. No. 2182. Plehn,p. 218.32 In the Dionysiac theatre at Athens several rows of chairsinscribed with the names of chief magistrates and priests havebeen recently discovered; casts of two of these may be seen in theElgin Room of the British Museum. See also Böckh, C. I. 5368,5369, for the inscriptions in the theatre at Syracuse.33 Suidas, 8. v. Aeoßóval. Strabo, xiii. p. 617.34 See my History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, &c. p. 712.35 Ælian, Var. Hist. vii. 15.36 No. 2166.Strabo, xiii. p. 618. Plin. N. H. v. 31 , § 39.38 See the description of this site in M. Boutan's Memoir onMytilene. See also Prokesch von Osten, Denkwürdigkeiten ausdem Orient, iii. p. 350.39 On the return of exiles to Lesbos in the time of Alexanderthe Great, see Böckh, C. I. No. 2166; Plehn, pp. 77, 78.40 Hence in the ancient Diræ the formula époì dè öoia. See myHistory of Discoveries, p. 723.41 Archestrat. ap. Athenæum, iii. p. 111 , F.42 This wall is described by M. Boutan in his memoir alreadycited, p. 318.43 Hist. Anim. v. 10, 2 , and 13, 10.44 On this law of custom, see a memoir by Mr. Hawkins, inWalpole's Travels in Turkey, London, 1820, p. 392.45 Homer, Hymn. in Bacchum, 44. Ovid, Met. iii. 582. Apollod.iii. 5, § 3.46 Deiotarus is the name of two rulers of Galatia in the 1stcentury B.C. With the name Allobogiona may be comparedBogodiataros, the name of a Galatian chief ( Strabo, xii. p. 567);Tolistobogii, one of the three principal tribes of Galatia; andPhuibagina, the name of a town among the Trocmi in the sameprovince, according to Ptolemy.47 Strabo, xiii. p617. See the .map in Plehn's work. M. Boutan places Ægiros at Xero Castro, near Parakoila, on the westernside of the Gulf of Kalloni, where he found a Greek Acropolis,2 A354 NOTES.with polygonal masonry. He states that this place is still calledÆgiros; but the situation does not the least correspond with thestatement of Strabo that Ægiros was between Methymna andMytilene.48 In another of these inscriptions a crown is decreed by thetribe Æolis to Aristophanes, son of Aristophon, on account of hispublic services. There is also mention of a temple of Athene.49 Froissart, ed. Buchon, xiv. p. 52 , et seq. Finlay, History ofByzantine and Greek Empires, 1854, p. 573.50 For the coins of this family see B. Köhne, Mémoires de laSociété d'Archéologie et de Numismatique de St. Pétersbourg,iii. p. 475, and iv. p. 110; Pindar und Friedländer, Beiträge zurMunzkunde, p. 29.51 In addition to these arms, there is sculptured on a wall , ashield bearing the arms of Gatelusio, impaling the eagle of theEmpire, with an augmentation in chief too defaced for identification: two crowned lions are supporters. On another part of thewall are sculptured the arms of Bembo of Venice.52 Engraved Stuart's Athens, iii. pl. 45.53 This subject is repeated in the curious relief at Paros, engravedK. O. Müller, Denkmäler d. a. Kunst, ed. Wieseler, Tav. 63,No. 814.Archäologische Zeitung, 1848, p. 109*.55 This inscription commences & dãµos kaτà xpnoµór. The metrical lines which follow may therefore be the oracle itself.56 Transactions of Royal Society of Literature, 2nd series, London, 1847, ii . p. 258.57 Since these remarks have been written, the site of the hillabove Bournarbashi has been carefully examined by Mr. Calvert,who places here the ancient Gergithos ( see his Memoir on the siteof Gergithos, Archæological Journal, 1864, p. 48), and also by Dr.Von Hahn, who has made excavations here, and has discoveredremains of an ancient acropolis, which he believes to be that ofTroy. See his memoir, Die Ausgrabungen auf d. Homer. Pergamos. Leipzig, 1865.58 In the former of these inscriptions, Claudius is styled SodalisTitius, as well as Augustalis. His titles are identical with thosein an inscription from Pola. Henzen, Inscript. Latin. Collectio.Turic. 1856, No. 5399.59 Poco*cke, Travels, ii. pt. 2, p. 110.NOTES. 35560 See Mr. Calvert's Memoir on Ophrynium, ArchæologicalJournal, 1860, p. 291.61 See Antiquités du Bosphore cimmérien, St. Petersburg,1854, Introduction, p. 37.62 Thevases found in the pithoi consisted ofthe following kinds: -Two-handled drinking- cups, of the shapes called kylikes andkothones. Flasks for oils and unguents (lekythi and aryballi).Figures occurred on several vases; the subjects were, in severalcases, Dionysiac. On one of the lekythi was represented a figuredriving a biga. In subject and drawing, this vase-picture resembledthose of a late period found at Athens. All the cups were turneddownwards, their mouths resting on the lower side of the pithos.The shallow cups contained bones and earth compacted togetherby pressure. With these vases were found two small bottles ofblue glass inlaid with yellow, and a terra-cotta relief, 64 incheshigh, representing the upper half of a female figure, perhapsAphrodite. On her head is a kind of crown, or tiara, from whicha veil hangs down behind, over her shoulders. Round her neckis a necklace; her hands are placed one on each breast. Thisterra-cotta is in a good style, but rather carelessly executed. Afragment from a thin marble slab inscribedΠΥΘΑ: ΑΠΕΨΕΔΙΟ: ΓΥ.63 In the Villa Albani at Rome is a marble relief, representingthe interview between Alexander and Diogenes. It is curious thatthe pithos in this relief is represented mended with rivets.64 It appears from Birch, Hist. of Pottery, i. 188, that similarpithoi were discovered in excavations on the site of old Dardanus, byMr. J. Brunton. Many small lekythi, resembling those at Athens,and some early vases, have likewise been found there (ibid. ii.p. 115). Mr. Birch states (ibid. ) that lekythi resembling thosefrom Athens have been found at the supposed tomb of Achillesin the Troad.65 N. H. 34, c. 6, § 36, and ibid. c. 7, § 42, where the number ofcolossal statues at Rhodes is stated to be 100 , not 300, as I haveinadvertently cited it in the text.66 My information respecting this head is derived from Mme.Biliotti, the wife of M. C. Biliotti, British Vice- Consul at Scio,who remembers the head on her first arrival at Rhodes.356 NOTES.67 Thevenot, Voyages dans le Levant, Eng. Transl. 1687,p. 117, states that he saw this head over the St. Catherinegate, but that, some years before his visit, it had been removedfrom the gate looking towards the den of the dragon, by whichit is to be presumed that he means the Amboise gate. Othertravellers state they saw the head over St. John's gate (see A.Berg, Die Insel Rhodus, Braunschweig, 1862, pt. i. p. 90). Itis possible, therefore, that the head may have been shifted fromgate to gate.68 L. Ross, Inscriptiones Græcæ See Ineditæ, iii. No. 274.his Reisen auf den Griechischen Inseln, iii. p. 84. After thedestruction of the church of St. John by an explosion in 1856,this inscription was presented by the Pasha of Rhodes to H.R.H.the Prince of Wales on his visit to Rhodes.69 L. Ross, Reisen, iv. p. 56.70 A. Berg, Die Insel Rhodus, pt. ii. p. 44.71 Ibid. pt. ii. pp. 60, 72.72 Ibid. pt. ii. p. 38.73 From this inscription it appears that there were two knightsof this name about the same period. The one was Turcopolierin 1500, and died in 1502, as we see by this inscription . Theother was Bailiff of Caspe and Cantaniera, and also Bailiff of Eagle(in co. Linc. ) in 1513. He was sent at the close of the year 1517 intoEngland to entreat aid against the Turks. Having obtained someassistance, he was returning to Rhodes, when he was driven by atempest back to the coast of England, where he and his followersperished in August, 1552. Three original letters from him toCardinal Wolsey, in 1517, are preserved in Cotton MSS. , Otho,C. ix.74 The form Arcoroliraι in this inscription may be comparedwith kindred forms, Ross, Inscript. Ined. iii. No. 265.75 The name of this sculptor is not given in the list of Greekartists in H. Brunn's Geschichte.76 Guérin, Voyage dans l'île de Rhodes, Paris, 1856, p. 169." Guillelmi Caoursin, Rhodiorum Vice- Cancellarii, ObsidionisRhodie Urbis Descriptio, Ulm, 1496, p. 8. Cf. Berg, pt. i.p. 56.78 Ross, Reisen, iii . p. 86.79 Ross, Archäologische Aufsätze, Leipsig, 1861 , pt. ii. pp. 384-89.80 With these ornaments may be compared an ear-ring, foundNOTES. 357with Byzantine gold coins in the island of Calymnos, which isnow in the British Museum.81 Lucian. Philopseud. ed. Lehmann, c. 20.89 Ross, Archäologische Aufsätze, pt. ii. p. 393.83 Herod. ii . 182 .Strabo, xiv. p. 655.p. 159.Pliny, N.H. xix. 1 , § 12. Diodorus, v. 58.Schol. ad Pindar. Olymp. vii. ed. Böckh, ii.84 Ross, Inscriptiones Ineditæ, iii. No. 272.85 Ross, Reisen, iii. p. 73. Hamilton, Travels in Asia Minor,ii. p. 55. Leake, Asia Minor, p. 225, note.86 Ross, Reisen, iv. p. 67, calls this place Giannari; and in hismap it is erroneously placed near Apolakkia. The name ispronounced Yannathi.87 The name Mesanagros is evidently μtoovaypós, a place halfway between the two coasts. Compare Mesótopo, the name of avillage in Mytilene.83 Compare ἀκρόλιθος.89 See the view of this wall, Berg, Rhodus, pt. ii. p. 151 , wherethe ornaments are very inaccurately rendered.90 Birch, History of Ancient Pottery, i. p. 252.91 The ruins on the shore are described , Ross, Reisen, iv. p. 62;Guérin, pp. 248-50.92 W. J. Hamilton, Travels, ii. p. 61. Ross, Reisen, iii. p. 107 .Guérin, pp. 261-65.93 Meursius, Rhodus, p. 85. Hesychius, s. v. aµßwves.94 See ante, note 44.95 For the Anerades see Ross, Reisen, iii. p. 45; Meursius,Glossarium Græco-barbarum, s. v. Nepádes; Nymphæ, GlossæGræco-barbaræ, άγρωστίναι, νύμφαι ὄρειοι, νεράδες ορεινοί. It appearsfrom G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien, Jena, 1854, p. 163, thatin Albania it is believed that men are sometimes born with tailsresembling those of goats or horses. See ibid. on the belief in theBрokóλako βροκόλακο.. Compare Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, Lyon, 1727,i. p. 158.96 In antiquity, one month, three months, and a year, were in likemanner periods of mourning. See K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch d.Griech. Privatalterthümer, § 39.97 Cotton MS. Otho, c. ix.98 For an account of these MSS. , see Ross, Reisen, ii. pp. 187,191; Guérin, Description de l'île de Patmos, Paris, 1856,358 NOTES.pp. 101-20; Rev. H. O. Coxe, Report to H. M.'s Government onGreek MSS. in Levant, London, 1588.99 Ross, ii. p. 179.100 Sandys, Travels, London, 1615 , p. 89 .101 Ross, ii. pp. 136, 137.102 On these coins, see Waddington, Revue Numismatique,Paris, 1856, p. 61. They were probably struck at Miletus.103 The connection of Calymna with Iassos is shown by aninscription, Böckh, C. I. No. 2671 .104 On this title see the authorities cited, K. F. Hermann,Lehrbuch d. Gottesdienstl. Alterthümer, § 35, n. 17.105 See the remarks on this type of Venus, Smith & Porcher,Discoveries at Cyrene, London, 1864, p. 96.106 See my History of the Budrum Expedition, pp . 590-1;Waddington, in Revue Numismatique, 1856, pp. 53-60.107 For a description and engravings of this tholos, see Ross,Archäologische Aufsätze, pt. ii . pp. 389-93, pl. v.; ArchäologischeZeitung, 1850, pp. 241-44; Reisen, iii. 131 , iv. p. 17.108 Theocr. Id. vii. 6. See Scholiast on this passage.109 Abeken, Mittelitalien, pp. 190-97. Bunsen, BeschreibungRoms, iii. 1 , p. 259 , et seq. E. Braun, Ruinen und Mus. Roms,p. 26. Cf. Canina, Descr. di Tusc. pl. xiv. for a similar building atTusculum.110 See the reference cited ante, note 56. The subsequent exploration of the Necropolis near Kalavarda by Messrs. Biliotti andSalzmann, and the identification of this site with Kamiros, will benoticed in the 2nd volume of this work.111 Ross, Inscript. Ined. iii . No. 277.112 Transact. Royal Soc. Lit. 2nd series, iii. p. 1 .113 Engraved, Berg, Rhodus, ii. p. 109. This relief has been sinceremoved to the Pasha's konak at Rhodes, where I saw it in 1863.114 Ross, Inscript. Ined. iii. No. 309.115 Ibid. ii. No. 175.116 Ibid. No. 311. Plutarch, Quæst. Gr. 58.117 Now in the British Museum.118 Millingen, Ancient Unedited Monuments, pl . vii.119 Ross, Inscript. Ined. iii . No. 303.120 Walpole, Memoirs relating to Turkey, p. 565.121 Rhodes was celebrated in antiquity as the island of serpents,and it is certain that very large snakes have been seen there byNOTES. 359credible witnesses at the present day; hence, perhaps, the originof the legend of the dragon. Ross, Reisen, iii. pp. 93-95, supposesthis monster to have been a crocodile brought from Egypt in someship-an improbable conjecture.122 For views of this chapel and of the frescoes in the crypt, seeRottier, Monumens de Rhodes, pll. 58-67, c.123 Now in the British Museum.124 Now in the British Museum.125 See T. Wright, Narratives of Sorcery and Magic, i. p. 170,ii. pp. 90, 100, 161 , 211 , 283, for instances of this superstition .126 At the rate of 118 piastres to the pound sterling.127 I am glad to state that since these remarks have beenwritten, the Smyrna hospital has been set in order.128 Ross, Reisen, iii. init.129 Ross, Reisen, iv. p. 10.130 Von Hahn, Alban. Studien, p. 150, note, mentions this asan Albanian custom.131 I am assured by Mr. Alfred Biliotti, British Vice- Consul atRhodes, and by other credible persons resident in the Archipelago,that they have seen divers descend thirty fathoms. I cannot,however, hear of any well- authenticated instance of a diverremaining under water more than two minutes, if as much. SeeSpratt and Forbes, Lycia, ii. p. 125.132 Spratt and Forbes, Lycia, ii. p. 127.133 See K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch d. Gottesd. Alterth. § 19 , 18.134 See the remarks on this type of Venus, Smith and Porcher,Cyrene, p. 96.135 K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch d. Griech. Staats Alterth. § 142.136 This inscription is now in the British Museum, having beenobtained for me by the kind intervention of a friend at Calymnosin 1858.137 Engraved with two other coats, one of which is Quirini ofVenice, Ross, Reisen, ii . p. 92.138 Ross, Inscript. Ined. ii. No. 179.139 Birch, History of Ancient Pottery, i. p. 233.140 Ross, Inscript. Ined. ii . No. 180.141 These are probably the coins noticed by Borrell, NumismaticChronicle, ix. p. 165.142 For this word, see Leake's Travels in the Morea, i. p. 366,note; Meursius, Glossarium Græco- Barbarum, s. v. μετóxιov.360 NOTES.143 Ross, Inscript. Ined. ii. No. 187.144 Pliny, N. H. v. § 36.145 On a visit to Rhodes in 1863, I was glad to hear thatManoli the Cassiote had ceased to reign in Calymnos, and that hehad migrated to Budrum. Whether his exile was voluntary ordecreed by ostracism, I could not learn.146 Classical Museum, v. pp. 170-201.147 Views on the Shores of the Mediterranean, by the Hon.Captain W. B. Devereux, R.N., 1847.END OF VOL. I.COX AND WYMAN, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.

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